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Palygorskite
A valid IMA mineral species - grandfathered
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About Palygorskite
Formula:
โปAl2Mg2โป2Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4 ยท 4H2O
Colour:
White. grayish, yellowish, gray-green
Lustre:
Waxy, Earthy
Hardness:
2 - 2½
Specific Gravity:
2.1 - 2.6
Crystal System:
Monoclinic
Member of:
Name:
For the type locality Palygorskaya, Russia.
May be confused with sepiolite.
Results of Garcรญa-Romero & Suรกrez (2010) indicate that no compositional gap exists between sepiolite and palygorskite.
Results of Garcรญa-Romero & Suรกrez (2010) indicate that no compositional gap exists between sepiolite and palygorskite.
Unique Identifiers
Mindat ID:
3072
Long-form identifier:
mindat:1:1:3072:0
IMA Classification of Palygorskite
Approved, 'Grandfathered' (first described prior to 1959)
IMA Formula:
(Mg,Al)2Si4O10(OH)ยท4H2O
Classification of Palygorskite
9.EE.20
9 : SILICATES (Germanates)
E : Phyllosilicates
E : Single tetrahedral nets of 6-membered rings connected by octahedral nets or octahedral bands
9 : SILICATES (Germanates)
E : Phyllosilicates
E : Single tetrahedral nets of 6-membered rings connected by octahedral nets or octahedral bands
74.3.1a.1
74 : PHYLLOSILICATES Modulated Layers
3 : Modulated Layers with joined strips
74 : PHYLLOSILICATES Modulated Layers
3 : Modulated Layers with joined strips
16.7.6
16 : Silicates Containing Aluminum and other Metals
7 : Aluminosilicates of Mg
16 : Silicates Containing Aluminum and other Metals
7 : Aluminosilicates of Mg
Mineral Symbols
As of 2021 there are now IMAโCNMNC approved mineral symbols (abbreviations) for each mineral species, useful for tables and diagrams.
Please only use the official IMAโCNMNC symbol. Older variants are listed for historical use only.
Please only use the official IMAโCNMNC symbol. Older variants are listed for historical use only.
| Symbol | Source | Reference for Standard |
|---|---|---|
| Plg | IMAโCNMNC | Warr, L.N. (2021). IMAโCNMNC approved mineral symbols. Mineralogical Magazine, 85(3), 291-320. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43 |
| Plg | Whitney & Evans (2010) | Whitney, D.L. and Evans, B.W. (2010) Abbreviations for names of rock-forming minerals. American Mineralogist, 95, 185โ187 doi:10.2138/am.2010.3371 |
| Pal | The Canadian Mineralogist (2019) | The Canadian Mineralogist (2019) The Canadian Mineralogist list of symbols for rock- and ore-forming minerals (December 30, 2019). download |
| Plg | Warr (2020) | Warr, L.N. (2020) Recommended abbreviations for the names of clay minerals and associated phases. Clay Minerals, 55, 261โ264 doi:10.1180/clm.2020.30 |
Pronunciation of Palygorskite
Pronunciation:
| Play | Recorded by | Country |
|---|---|---|
| Jolyon Ralph | United Kingdom |
Physical Properties of Palygorskite
Waxy, Earthy
Transparency:
Translucent
Colour:
White. grayish, yellowish, gray-green
Hardness:
2 - 2½ on Mohs scale
Cleavage:
Distinct/Good
Good on {110}
Good on {110}
Comment:
Tough
Density:
2.1 - 2.6 g/cm3 (Measured) 2.35 g/cm3 (Calculated)
Optical Data of Palygorskite
Type:
Biaxial (-)
RI values:
nα = 1.522 - 1.528 nβ = 1.53 - 1.546 nγ = 1.533 - 1.548
2V:
Measured: 30° to 61°
Max. Birefringence:
δ = 0.011 - 0.020
Based on recorded range of RI values above.
Based on recorded range of RI values above.
Interference Colours:
The colours simulate birefringence patterns seen in thin section under crossed polars. They do not take into account mineral colouration or opacity.
Michel-Levy Bar The default colours simulate the birefringence range for a 30 ยตm thin-section thickness. Adjust the slider to simulate a different thickness.
Grain Simulation You can rotate the grain simulation to show how this range might look as you rotated a sample under crossed polars. Each grain retains its interference colour (retardation) while its brightness falls to black at extinction and reaches a maximum between extinction positions.
The colours simulate birefringence patterns seen in thin section under crossed polars. They do not take into account mineral colouration or opacity.
Michel-Levy Bar The default colours simulate the birefringence range for a 30 ยตm thin-section thickness. Adjust the slider to simulate a different thickness.
Grain Simulation You can rotate the grain simulation to show how this range might look as you rotated a sample under crossed polars. Each grain retains its interference colour (retardation) while its brightness falls to black at extinction and reaches a maximum between extinction positions.
Surface Relief:
None to Very Low
Relative to Canada balsam mounting medium (n ≈ 1.537).
Relative to Canada balsam mounting medium (n ≈ 1.537).
This shows the grain boundary and Becke line effect under plane-polarised
light, based on the contrast between this mineral's average refractive
index and the mounting medium. It does not take into account mineral
colouration.
In focus
Interference Figure:
This shows the idealized biaxial acute bisectrix (Bxa) interference figure
- the conoscopic view for a grain cut perpendicular to the acute bisectrix, using
this mineral's 2V. The two small white dots mark the melatopes - the points
where the two optic axes emerge - and are shown only when they fall within the
field of view. The coloured bands are isochromatics, and the dark bands are
isogyres.
Rotate the stage: at 0°/90° the isogyres form a cross through the melatopes; at 45° they pull apart into curved hyperbolas. That splitting on rotation - absent in a uniaxial figure - is the standard diagnostic test for telling biaxial minerals from uniaxial ones. If 2V is large, the melatopes may fall outside the field of view, as they often do at the microscope too.
Rotate the stage: at 0°/90° the isogyres form a cross through the melatopes; at 45° they pull apart into curved hyperbolas. That splitting on rotation - absent in a uniaxial figure - is the standard diagnostic test for telling biaxial minerals from uniaxial ones. If 2V is large, the melatopes may fall outside the field of view, as they often do at the microscope too.
Pleochroism:
Visible
Comments:
X= pale yellow
Y=Z= pale yellow-green
Y=Z= pale yellow-green
Chemistry of Palygorskite
Mindat Formula:
โปAl2Mg2โป2Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4 ยท 4H2O
Element Weights:
Common Impurities:
Fe,K
Crystallography of Palygorskite
Crystal System:
Monoclinic
Class (H-M):
2/m - Prismatic
Space Group:
B2/m
Setting:
C2/m
Cell Parameters:
a = 12.78 Å, b = 17.86 Å, c = 5.24 Å
β = 95.78°
β = 95.78°
Ratio:
a:b:c = 0.716 : 1 : 0.293
Unit Cell V:
1,189.95 ร
ยณ (Calculated from Unit Cell)
Z:
4
Morphology:
Commonly fibrous, tangled mats known as mountain leather. Individual, small crystals are lath-shaped.
Crystal Structure
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Data courtesy of the American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database. Click on an AMCSD ID to view structure
| ID | Species | Reference | Link | Year | Locality | Pressure (GPa) | Temp (K) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0004565 | Palygorskite | Post J E, Heaney P J (2008) Synchotron powder X-ray diffraction study of the structure and dehydration behavior of palygorskite American Mineralogist 93 667-675 |  | 2008 | Lemesurier Island, Alaska | 0 | 293 |
| 0004564 | Palygorskite | Post J E, Heaney P J (2008) Synchotron powder X-ray diffraction study of the structure and dehydration behavior of palygorskite American Mineralogist 93 667-675 | | 2008 | Yulu River, Korea | 0 | 293 |
| 0004563 | Palygorskite | Post J E, Heaney P J (2008) Synchotron powder X-ray diffraction study of the structure and dehydration behavior of palygorskite American Mineralogist 93 667-675 | | 2008 | Yulu River, Korea | 0 | 293 |
| 0007075 | Palygorskite | Guistetto R, Chiari G (2004) Crystal structure refinement of palygorskite from neutron powder diffraction European Journal of Mineralogy 16 521-532 | 2004 | Lorenzo Pech mine, near Ticul, on the way to Chapab, Chiapas, Mexico | 0 | 293 | |
| 0007074 | Palygorskite | Guistetto R, Chiari G (2004) Crystal structure refinement of palygorskite from neutron powder diffraction European Journal of Mineralogy 16 521-532 | 2004 | Lorenzo Pech mine, near Ticul, on the way to Chapab, Chiapas, Mexico | 0 | 293 | |
| 0006954 | Palygorskite | Chiari G, Giustetto R, Ricchiardi G (2003) Crystal structure refinements of palygorskite and Maya Blue from molecular modeling and powder synchrotron diffraction European Journal of Mineralogy 15 21-33 | 2003 | 0 | 293 | ||
| 0006953 | Palygorskite | Chiari G, Giustetto R, Ricchiardi G (2003) Crystal structure refinements of palygorskite and Maya Blue from molecular modeling and powder synchrotron diffraction European Journal of Mineralogy 15 21-33 | 2003 | 0 | 293 |
CIF Raw Data - click here to close
X-Ray Powder Diffraction
Powder Diffraction Data:
| d-spacing | Intensity |
|---|---|
| 10.44 ร | (100) |
| 6.36 ร | (13) |
| 4.466 ร | (20) |
| 4.262 ร | (22) |
| 3.679 ร | (15) |
| 3.096 ร | (16) |
| 2.539 ร | (20) |
Geological Environment
Paragenetic Mode(s):
| Paragenetic Mode | Earliest Age (Ga) |
|---|---|
| Stage 3b: Earthโs earliest hydrosphere | >4.45 |
| 16 : Low-๐ aqueous alteration of Hadean subaerial lithologies (see also #23) | |
| 17 : Marine authigenic Hadean minerals (see also #24) | |
| Near-surface Processes | |
| 24 : Authigenic minerals in terrestrial sediments (see also #17) | |
| 25 : Evaporites (prebiotic) | |
| 26 : Hadean detrital minerals | |
| High-๐ alteration and/or metamorphism | |
| 31 : Thermally altered carbonate, phosphate, and iron formations | |
| Stage 5: Initiation of plate tectonics | <3.5-2.5 |
| 43 : Shear-induced minerals (including mylonite/slickensides) | |
| Stage 7: Great Oxidation Event | <2.4 |
| 47a : [Near-surface hydration of prior minerals] | |
| Stage 10a: Neoproterozoic oxygenation/terrestrial biosphere | <0.6 |
| 48 : Soil leaching zone minerals | <0.6 |
Geological Setting:
Alteration product of magnesium silicates
Type Occurrence of Palygorskite
Synonyms of Palygorskite
Other Language Names for Palygorskite
Anglo-Saxon:Attapulgite
Catalan:Paligorskita
Dutch:Palygorskiet
Esperanto:Paligorskito
Italian:Palygorskite
Portuguese:Paligorsquite
Russian:ะะฐะปัะณะพััะบะธั
Simplified Chinese:ๅนๅธๆฃ็ณ
ๅก็ผ็ณ
ๅก็ผ็ณ
Slovak:Palygorskit
Relationship of Palygorskite to other Species
Member of:
Other Members of Palygorskite Group:
| Ikorskyite | KMn3+(Si4O10) ยท 3H2O | Mon. 2/m : P21/c |
| Raite | Mn2+Mn2+2Na2(โป1.75Ti0.25)Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4 ยท Na(H2O)6 | Orth. 222 : C222 |
| Tuperssuatsiaite | Fe3+Fe3+2(Naโป)โป2Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4 ยท 2H2O | Mon. 2/m : B2/m |
| 'Unnamed (Na-Ca-Fe-Silicate-Hydrate)' | NaCa(Fe2+,Al,Mn)5[Si8O19(OH)](OH)7 ยท 5H2O | Tric. 1 : P1 |
| Windhoekite | Fe3+(Fe3+1.67โป0.33)Ca2โป2Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4(OH)2 ยท 6H2O | Mon. 2/m : B2/m |
| Windmountainite | โปFe3+2Mg2โป2Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4 ยท 4H2O | Mon. 2/m : B2/m |
| Yofortierite | Mn2+Mn2+2Mn2+2โป2Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4 ยท 4H2O | Mon. 2/m : B2/m |
Common Associates
Associations Based on Photo Data:
| 81 photos of Palygorskite associated with Calcite | CaCO3 |
| 13 photos of Palygorskite associated with Dolomite | CaMg(CO3)2 |
| 10 photos of Palygorskite associated with Axinite-(Fe) | Ca2Fe2+Al2BSi4O15OH |
| 9 photos of Palygorskite associated with Quartz | SiO2 |
| 9 photos of Palygorskite associated with Mimetite | Pb5(AsO4)3Cl |
| 8 photos of Palygorskite associated with Romanรจchite | (Ba,H2O)2(Mn4+,Mn3+)5O10 |
| 7 photos of Palygorskite associated with Chalcophanite | ZnMn4+3O7 ยท 3H2O |
| 6 photos of Palygorskite associated with Orthoclase | K(AlSi3O8) |
| 6 photos of Palygorskite associated with Epidote | (CaCa)(AlAlFe3+)O[Si2O7][SiO4](OH) |
| 4 photos of Palygorskite associated with 'Pink Opal' |
Related Minerals - Strunz-mindat Grouping
| 9.EE. | Cairncrossite | Sr2Ca7-xNa2x(Si4O10)4(OH)2(H2O)15-x |
| 9.EE.05 | Bementite | Mn7Si6O15(OH)8 |
| 9.EE.07 | Innsbruckite | Mn33(Si2O5)14(OH)38 |
| 9.EE.10 | 'Brokenhillite' | Mn8Si6O15(OH)10 |
| 9.EE.10 | Mcgillite | (Mn,Fe)8Si6O15(OH)8Cl2 |
| 9.EE.10 | Friedelite | Mn2+8Si6O15(OH,Cl)10 |
| 9.EE.10 | Pyrosmalite-(Mn) | Mn2+8Si6O15(OH,Cl)10 |
| 9.EE.10 | Pyrosmalite-(Fe) | Fe2+8Si6O15(OH,Cl)10 |
| 9.EE.15 | Nelenite | Mn2+16As3+3Si12O36(OH)17 |
| 9.EE.15 | Schallerite | Mn2+16As3Si12O36(OH)17 |
| 9.EE.20 | Yofortierite | Mn2+Mn2+2Mn2+2โป2Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4 ยท 4H2O |
| 9.EE.20 | Windhoekite | Fe3+(Fe3+1.67โป0.33)Ca2โป2Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4(OH)2 ยท 6H2O |
| 9.EE.20 | Windmountainite | โปFe3+2Mg2โป2Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4 ยท 4H2O |
| 9.EE.20 | Ikorskyite | KMn3+(Si4O10) ยท 3H2O |
| 9.EE.20 | Tuperssuatsiaite | Fe3+Fe3+2(Naโป)โป2Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4 ยท 2H2O |
| 9.EE.20 | 'Unnamed (Na-Ca-Fe-Silicate-Hydrate)' | NaCa(Fe2+,Al,Mn)5[Si8O19(OH)](OH)7 ยท 5H2O |
| 9.EE.25 | Sepiolite | Mg4(Si6O15)(OH)2 ยท 6H2O |
| 9.EE.25 | Loughlinite | Na2Mg3Si6O16 ยท 8H2O |
| 9.EE.25 | Falcondoite | (Ni,Mg)4Si6O15(OH)2 ยท 6H2O |
| 9.EE.25 | Kalifersite | (K,Na)5Fe3+7Si20O50(OH)6 ยท 12H2O |
| 9.EE.30 | Orlymanite | Ca4Mn3Si8O20(OH)6 ยท 2H2O |
| 9.EE.30 | Tungusite | Ca4Fe2Si6O15(OH)6 |
| 9.EE.30 | Gyrolite | NaCa16Si23AlO60(OH)8 ยท 14H2O |
| 9.EE.35 | Reyerite | (Na,K)2Ca14(Si,Al)24O58(OH)8 ยท 6H2O |
| 9.EE.35 | Kodamaite | Na3(Ca5Na)Si16O36(OH)4F2 ยท (14-x)H2O |
| 9.EE.35 | Truscottite | (Ca,Mn)14Si24O58(OH)8 ยท 2H2O |
| 9.EE.40 | Natrosilite | Na2Si2O5 |
| 9.EE.45 | Makatite | Na2Si4O8(OH)2 ยท 4H2O |
| 9.EE.50 | Varennesite | Na8Mn2Si10O25(OH,Cl)2 ยท 12H2O |
| 9.EE.55 | Raite | Mn2+Mn2+2Na2(โป1.75Ti0.25)Si8O20(OH)2(H2O)4 ยท Na(H2O)6 |
| 9.EE.60 | Intersilite | Na6Mn2+Ti[Si10O24(OH)](OH)3 ยท 4H2O |
| 9.EE.65 | Zakharovite | Na4Mn5Si10O24(OH)6 ยท 6H2O |
| 9.EE.65 | Shafranovskite | Na3K2(Mn,Fe,Na)4[Si9(O,OH)27](OH)2 ยท nH2O |
| 9.EE.70 | Zeophyllite | Ca13Si10O28(OH)2F8 ยท 6H2O |
| 9.EE.75 | Minehillite | (K,Na)2-3Ca28Zn4Al4Si40O112(OH)16 |
| 9.EE.80 | Fedorite | (Na,K)2-3(Ca4Na3)Si16O38(OH,F)2 ยท 3.5H2O |
| 9.EE.80 | Martinite | (Na,โป,Ca)12Ca4(Si,S,B)14B2O38(OH,Cl)2F2 ยท 4H2O |
| 9.EE.80 | Ellingsenite | Na5Ca6Si18O38(OH)13 ยท 6H2O |
| 9.EE.85 | Lalondeite | (Na,Ca)6(Ca,Na)3Si16O38(F,OH)2 ยท 3H2O |
Other Information
Health Risks:
No information on health risks for this material has been entered into the database. You should always treat mineral specimens with care.
Internet Links for Palygorskite
mindat.org URL:
https://www.mindat.org/min-3072.html
Please feel free to link to this page.
Please feel free to link to this page.
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References for Palygorskite
Reference List:
Van Olphen, H. (1966) Maya Blue: A Clay-Organic Pigment? Science, 154 (3749). 645-646 doi:10.1126/science.154.3749.645
Christ, C. L., Hathaway, J. C., Hostetler, P. B., Shepard, Anna O. (1969) Palygorskite: New X-ray data. American Mineralogist, 54 (1-2) 198-205
Serna, C., VanScoyoc, G. E., Ahlrichs, J. L. (1977) Hydroxyl groups and water in palygorskite. American Mineralogist, 62 (7-8) 784-792
Heller-Kallai, L. (1981) Mรถssbauer Studies of Palygorskite and Some Aspects of Palygorskite Mineralogy. Clays and Clay Minerals, 29 (3). 226-232 doi:10.1346/ccmn.1981.0290309
Artioli, Gilberto, Galli, E. (1994) The Crystal Structures of Orthorhombic and Monoclinic Palygorskite. Materials Science Forum, 166. 647-652 doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.166-169.647
Khademi, H., Mermut, A. R. (1998) Source of Palygorskite in Gypsiferous Aridisols and Associated Sediments from Central Iran. Clay Minerals, 33 (4). 561-578 doi:10.1180/claymin.1998.033.4.04
McKeown, David A., Post, Jeffrey E., Etz, Edgar S. (2002) Vibrational analysis of palygorskite and sepiolite. Clays and Clay Minerals, 50 (5) 667-680 doi:10.1346/000986002320679549
Giustetto, Roberto, Chiari, Giacomo (2004) Crystal structure refinement of palygorskite from neutron powder diffraction. European Journal of Mineralogy, 16 (3) 521-532 doi:10.1127/0935-1221/2004/0016-0521
Post, J. E., Heaney, P. J. (2008) Synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction study of the structure and dehydration behavior of palygorskite. American Mineralogist, 93 (4) 667-675 doi:10.2138/am.2008.2590
Chryssikos, G. D., Gionis, V., Kacandes, G. H., Stathopoulou, E. T., Suarez, M., Garcia-Romero, E., Del Rio, M. S. (2009) Octahedral cation distribution in palygorskite. American Mineralogist, 94 (1) 200-203 doi:10.2138/am.2009.3063
Nasedkin, V. V., Boeva, N. M., Garbuzova, I. A., Kovalchuk, M. V., Vasiliev, A. L. (2009) The crystal structure and chemistry of several palygorskite samples with different geneses. Crystallography Reports, 54 (5) 884-900 doi:10.1134/s1063774509050228
Garcรญa-Romero, E., Suรกrez, M. (2010) On the Chemical Composition of Sepiolite and Palygorskite. Clays and Clay Minerals, 58 (1) 1-20 doi:10.1346/ccmn.2010.0580101
Stathopoulou, Elizabeth T., Suรกrez, Mercedes, Garcรญa-Romero, Emilia, Rรญo, Manuel Sรกnchez Del, Kacandes, George H., Gionis, Vassilis, Chryssikos, Georgios D. (2011) Trioctahedral entities in palygorskite: Near-infrared evidence for sepiolite-palygorskite polysomatism. European Journal of Mineralogy, 23 (4) 567-576 doi:10.1127/0935-1221/2011/0023-2112
Post, J.L., Crawford, S.M. (2014) Uses of near-infared spectra for the identification of clay minerals. Applied Clay Science, 95. 383-387 doi:10.1016/j.clay.2014.02.010
Localities for Palygorskite
Showing 395 localities.
symbol to view information about a locality.
The Locality List
- This locality has map coordinates listed.
- This locality has estimated coordinates.
โ - Click for references and further information on this occurrence.
? - Indicates mineral may be doubtful at this locality.
- Good crystals or important locality for species.
- World class for species or very significant.
(TL) - Type Locality for a valid mineral species.
(FRL) - First Recorded Locality for everything else (eg varieties).
All localities listed without proper references should be considered as questionable.
Atlantic Ocean | |
| Martos-Villa +5 other references | |
| Gablina et al. (2018) |
| Gablina et al. (2018) | |
Australia | |
| Birch (1999) |
| Sielecki (1988) |
| Costas Constantinides pers comm | |
| Sielecki (1988) | |
| Costas Constantinides collection |
| notesmi.altarum.org (n.d.) |
| M Latham Collection |
| Bottrill (1989) +1 other reference |
| Bottrill et al. (2002) |
| Bottrill +1 other reference |
| |
| mrdate.usgs.gov (n.d.) |
| Graham (2003) |
Austria | |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| Niedermayr et al. (2001) |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| A.Pichler (2012) | |
| Kanaki (1972) | |
| Brandstรคtter et al. (2011) | |
| Martin Rich collection | |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| - (n.d.) |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) | |
| G.Indra coll. |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| |
| Niedermayr et al. (1995) |
| G. Niedermayr: Carinthia II 180./100.:247-248 (1990) |
| Pristacz et al. (2011) |
| Neschen (n.d.) +1 other reference |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Strasser (1989) |
| Hackenberg (2003) |
| Aufschluss 1972 (SB) +1 other reference |
| Exel (1993) |
| Gerald Gesselbauer (2010) | |
| Hollerer (1999) |
| Neschen (n.d.) |
| Postl et al. (1988) |
| Exel (1993) +1 other reference |
| Niedermayr et al. (2011) |
Brazil | |
| Costa et al. (2016) |
Bulgaria | |
| |
| Petko Popov et al. (2012) |
| [MinRec 22 p.439] |
| Svetla Atanassova (2007) +1 other reference |
Canada | |
| Smith et al. (1986) |
| Smith et al. (1986) |
| Geological Survey of Canada +2 other references |
| Smith et al. (1986) |
| Jim McKinnon collection |
| Smith et al. (1986) | |
| Tanner (1994) |
| Ronnie Van Dommelen collection |
| Maggie Wilson |
| 179-181. +3 other references |
| McDonald et al. (NTS 105 D/3, 6) |
Chile | |
| American Mineralogist |
| Harvard University specimen | |
China | |
| Changgen Liu and Keqin Cai (1993) +1 other reference |
| Pan Fang et al. (1981) +1 other reference |
| Hong et al. (2007) |
| Takabumi et al. (2006) |
| McQueen et al. (1995) |
| Wenguang Li (1997) |
| Bonnetti et al. (2015) |
| Tianhu Chen et al. (2002) +1 other reference |
| Wenguang Li (1997) +1 other reference | |
| Wenguang Li (1997) |
| Chang Xu (1985) |
Cuba | |
| MACIZO METAMรRFICO ESCAMBRAY. CUBA CENTRAL. CONTROLES Y USOS DE LOS MINERALES NO-METรLICOS. Humberto รlvarez-Sรกnchez (1) +2 other references |
Czech Republic | |
| Zemek +5 other references |
| www.mineralienatlas.de (2013) | |
| Litochleb +4 other references |
| Jiri Sejkora (2009) |
| Pauliลก +3 other references |
| Hlouลกek et al. (2002) |
| Kunert |
| Pauliลก (2008) |
| Hofmanovi P. a R. |
| Hofmanovi P. a R.: Mineralizace ... |
| ฤernรฝ | |
| Pauliลก +1 other reference |
| Litochleb et al. (2009) |
| Litochleb (1997) |
| Zikeลก et al. (2011) |
| www.mineralos.cz (2003) |
| Pelรญลกek (1979) |
| pruvodce.geol.morava.sci.muni.cz (2007) |
| Houzar | |
| Hybler et al. (2016) |
| Stanฤk (1991) +4 other references |
| Stanฤk (1997) | |
| - (1993) |
| Petr Pauliลก | |
DR Congo | |
| Deliens (1996) |
Ecuador | |
| Singer et al. (2008) |
Finland | |
| Pรฉrez del Villar et al. (386) |
France | |
| Sorrell (n.d.) |
| Belot (1978) |
| Descouens et al. (1986) +1 other reference |
| visual identification Michel Treillard |
| Guitard (2010) |
| Chevalier et al. (1998) |
| Berbain et al. (2005) |
| Alain Guillet collection |
Germany | |
| Wittern (2001) |
| Lapis 34 (9) |
| Lapis 34 (9) |
| Lapis 34 (9) |
| Lapis 34 (9) |
| Marcus Voigt Collection |
Greece | |
| Sideridis et al. (2022) |
| Sideridis et al. (2022) | |
| Prodromos Nikolaidis Collection |
Greenland | |
| Ted Johnson collection |
| Sรธrensen (2001) +1 other reference |
Hungary | |
| 100 mineral localities of Hungary: ... +2 other references |
| Sรกndor et al. (2005) | |
| Sรกndor et al. (2005) | |
| Mecsek-Oko |
| Szakรกll & Jรกnosi (1996) |
Indonesia | |
| Syaban et al. (2024) |
| Imawan et al. (2024) |
Iran | |
| Filippi et al. (2002) |
| Ali Sholeh et al. (2016) |
Iraq | |
| Al-Bassam et al. (1998) |
Israel | |
| Bartura (1974) |
Italy | |
| Emiliani (1994) |
| Adorni et al. (2010) |
| Gianluca Armellino et al. (2024) |
| Bedognรจ (2006) |
| Palenzona A. (1984) +1 other reference |
| Piccoli et al. (2007) |
| |
| Gamboni et al. (2021) |
| Conti - Vecchi et al. (1991) |
| dan weinrich |
| Folie K. (Ed.) |
| 50 +2 other references |
| Boscardin et al. (2000) +2 other references | |
Japan | |
| Okamoto & Tanaka (1958) |
| Hattori et al. (1967) |
| - (n.d.) |
| Masutomi Museum specimen (Kyoto) |
| Masutomi Museum specimens | |
| PXRD by Alfredo Petrov |
| National Science Museum |
| - (n.d.) |
Kazakhstan | |
| Jermolenko (2002) |
Kyrgyzstan | |
| Terra Nostra 2001/2: 3 |
Madagascar | |
| Behier (1960) |
| Lacroix (1912) |
Mexico | |
| Dr. Jeffrey Post |
| Querol +1 other reference |
| Panczner (1987) |
Morocco | |
| MINERALOGICAL AND PHYSICOCHEMICAL ... +5 other references |
Namibia | |
| Wilde (2023) |
| deepyellow.com.au (2020) | |
| Chukanov +3 other references |
| Gebhard (1999) |
New Zealand | |
| Soong (1992) +1 other reference |
Niger | |
| 338pp. +3 other references |
North Korea | |
| Post et al. (2008) | |
Norway | |
| Hansen (1973) |
| Sverdrup (1959) |
| Nordrum et al. (2003) |
| Wel (1972) |
| - (n.d.) |
| New entry by Stuart Mills 10/Nov/02 |
| Kvamsdal (1999) |
| Ivan Syversen Collection |
| Nordrum (2011) |
| Nordrum (2010) |
| Evja (2019) | |
| Nordrum (2000) |
| Nordrum (1993) |
| Larsen (1993) |
| Larsen (1993) | |
| Salter et al. (1974) |
| Witsรธ (1995) |
| Garmo (2000) |
| Nordrum (2010) | |
| Larsen et al. (2010) |
| NHM Oslo collection |
| Garmo et al. (2017) |
| Selbekk (1990) +1 other reference |
Peru | |
| Hyrsl et al. (2003) |
| Extra Lapis - English No. 10 Opal |
Poland | |
| Pusch (1833) |
| Eligiusz Szeลฤg private collection | |
| Eligiusz Szeลฤg collection |
| Lis et al. (1986) |
| Domaลska (n.d.) |
| Praszkier et al. (2010) |
Portugal | |
| C. S. Figueredo Gomes - Ocorrรชncia de paligorskite na Gandra (Mortรกgua) |
Qatar | |
| DILL et al. (2005) |
Romania | |
| minerals-of-the-carpathians.eu (2008) |
| Szakรกll (2002) | |
| Bielz (1889) |
| Ed.:Szakรกll S.-Kristรกly ... |
Russia | |
| Talovina et al. (2008) |
| Talovina et al. (2008) |
| Talovina et al. (2008) +2 other references |
| Talovina et al. (2008) | |
| ะะตะบะธะฝ (2010) +1 other reference | |
| ะะตะบะธะฝ (2010) +1 other reference | |
| ะะตะบะธะฝ (2010) +1 other reference | |
| ะะตะบะธะฝ (2010) +1 other reference | |
| Evseev et al. (2004) |
| webmineral.ru (2020) |
| Yakovenchuk et al. (2010) |
| ... | |
| Sharkov (2009) |
| Pekov (1998) |
| Museum Victoria Registration Number: M ... |
| Grant et al. (2001) |
| [World of Stones 12:49] | |
Saudi Arabia | |
| Al-Bassam (2005) |
| Al-Shayea (2000) |
| Saudi Geological Survey Open-File ... +1 other reference |
Senegal | |
| www.uoguelph.ca (2003) |
| www.uoguelph.ca (2003) |
Serbia | |
| Zivanovic (2019) |
Slovakia | |
| Kodฤra et al. (1986) |
| Kodฤra et al. (1986) |
| Kodฤra et al. (1986) |
| Kodฤra et al. (1986) | |
| Kodฤra et al. (1986) | |
| Kodฤra et al. (1986) |
| Kodฤra et al. (1986) |
| Kodฤra et al. (1986) |
| Kodฤra et al. (1986) | |
| Kodฤra et al. (1986) |
| ฤuฤa |
Slovenia | |
| Reฤnik et al. (2010) |
Spain | |
| Calvo Rebollar (2016) |
| Calvo Rebollar (2018) |
| Angel Ortiz Maellas collection |
| Stvdia Geologica Salmanticensia |
| Fernรกndez Macarro et al. (1988) |
| Fernรกndez Macarro et al. (1988) | |
| Buey et al. (2025) | |
| Buey et al. (2025) | |
| Vanrusselt (2023) |
| Buey et al. (2025) | |
| Calvo Rebollar (2018) |
| Calvo et al. (2000) |
| Ruishi Yang and Wenguang Li (2001) |
| Jordi Fabre |
| usuarios.lycos.es (2004) |
Sweden | |
| รhman et al. (2000) |
| Gustafsson et al. (1991) +1 other reference |
| www.k1q.net (2002) |
| Sandstrรถm et al. (2009) |
| Sandstrรถm et al. (2009) | |
| Sandstrรถm et al. (2009) | |
| Nysten (2004) |
| รhman (2003) |
Switzerland | |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
| Stalder et al. (1998) | |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
| |
| Stalder et al. (1998) |
Syria | |
| Abbas et al. (1985) +1 other reference |
Tajikistan | |
| Xinjiang Tacheng International Resources Ltd. |
| Badalov et al. (1977) | |
Tanzania | |
| Schwaighofer et al. (1987) |
Togo | |
| Gnandi et al. (2003) |
| Gnandi et al. (2003) |
Tunisia | |
| GALFATI et al. (2010) |
Turkey | |
| Gรผngรถr Yeลilova et al. (2023) |
| Altay et al. (2010) |
UK | |
| Shaw (1972) +1 other reference |
| Shaw (1972) +1 other reference | |
| Stanley et al. (1991) | |
| Mineralogical Magazine (1984) +2 other references |
| Render (n.d.) |
| Smith et al. (1986) | |
| Render (n.d.) | |
| Peter Nancarrow Collection specimen no PN 540 (Collected by E.J. Beer - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_John_Beer) |
| www.mineralman.f9.co.uk (2001) |
| www.sssi.naturalengland.org.uk (2016) |
| Render (n.d.) |
| Render (n.d.) |
| Render (n.d.) |
| Am Min 61:3-4 pp 299-302 |
| |
| Criddle et al. (1977) |
| National Museum of Wales specimen |
Ukraine | |
| Tischenko Alexander |
| A. Tischenko. Minerals of the Crimea - ... |
| Dvoichenko P.A. The minerals of Crimea (1914) |
| Dvoichenko (1914) +1 other reference | |
| Dvoichenko P.A. The minerals of Crimea (1914) | |
USA | |
| Smith et al. (1986) |
| Smith et al. (1986) |
| Schultz (1963) +1 other reference |
| Luetcke (n.d.) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Thomas et al. (1983) +1 other reference |
| Galbraith (1947) |
| Bideaux (1980) +1 other reference |
| Anthony et al. (1995) |
| Anthony et al. (1995) | |
| Anthony et al. (1995) | |
| Howard +1 other reference |
| Smith (1988) |
| Howard (1987) +1 other reference | |
| Pohl et al. (1982) +1 other reference |
| Henderson (1973) +2 other references |
| Droste (1959) +2 other references |
| Foord et al. (1986) |
| Troy Schmidt Collection | |
| Ferguson (1932) +2 other references |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Eckel et al. (1997) |
| Januzzi (1994) |
| Januzzi et al. (1976) +1 other reference |
| USGS Circular 1059 pp129-137 |
| Smith et al. (1986) | |
| - (2005) | |
| - (2005) | |
| - (2005) | |
| cms.lanl.gov (n.d.) | |
| - (2005) | |
| Clay Minerals (1990) | |
| - (2005) | |
| Marc V. Hurst (2012) |
| Cook (1978) |
| Cook (1978) | |
| Smith et al. (1986) | |
| Cook (1978) |
| Rocks & Min.:64:202. |
| Cook (1978) | |
| Rocks & Min.: 64:203. | |
| Rocks & Min.: 64: 202. |
| Cook (1978) |
| - (2005) |
| - (2005) | |
| Cook (1978) | |
| Cook (1978) | |
| Hennebois et al. (2025) |
| Ream (2004) |
| Morris (1983) |
| Heinrich et al. (2004) |
| Sherwood et al. (1998) |
| Gnanou (2018) |
| Gnanou (2018) | |
| Gnanou (2018) |
| Guilbert and Zeihen +1 other reference |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| Abdolmaleki et al. (2026) |
| Barrick Gold Corporation |
| Castor et al. (2004) |
| King (n.d.) |
| Bradley D. Plotkin collection |
| King (n.d.) |
| Northrop et al. (1996) |
| Northrop et al. (1996) | |
| Northrop et al. (1996) |
| Ronald Januzzi collection |
| Furbush et al. (1976) |
| x-ray diffraction data from 1986 East Carolina Univ. field trip (Pei Lin Tien) | |
| Smith (1977) |
| Sloto (1989) |
| www.jonesgeo.com (2011) |
| Shannon (1927) |
| Bullock (1981) |
| Rocks & Min. Vol. 71 (1996) |
| |
| Dietrich (1985) |
| Cannon (1975) |
| Derkey et al. (1990, November) | |
| Cannon (1975) | |
| Cannon (1975) | |
| Cannon (1975) | |
| Charles W. Huggins (1962) | |
| Cannon (1975) | |
| Teck Resources Limited | |
| Cannon (1975) | |
| Derkey et al. (1990, November) | |
| Cannon (1975) |
Uzbekistan | |
| Mirzaev et al. (2004) |
Venezuela | |
| Franco Urbani (2009) |
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