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Firestorm

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Firestorm
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare naatmospheric phenomenon (en) Fassara da Wuta
Has cause (en) FassaraGobara
Ra'ayi na daya daga cikin gobarar Tillamook Burn a watan Agustan 1933

Firestorm wata babbar gobarar da ta bazu sosai ce wadda ta kai wani mataki na ƙarfi har ta samar da kuma ci gaba da riƙe nata tsarin iska. Yawanci al’amari ne na halitta, wanda ke faruwa a lokacin wasu daga cikin manyan gobarar daji da gobarar daji. Ko da yake an yi amfani da kalmar wajen bayyana wasu manyan gobara,[1]abin da ya fi bayyana wannan al’amari shi ne gobarar da ke da nata iskar mai ƙarfi irin ta guguwar iska, wadda ke kadawa daga kowane ɓangare na alkibla zuwa tsakiyar guguwar, inda iska ke ɗumama sannan ta haura sama.[2][3]

Gobarar daji ta Black Saturday, gobarar daji ta British Columbia ta shekarar 2021, da babbar gobarar Peshtigo suna daga cikin misalan da za a iya danganta su da gobarar daji inda wani ɓangare na ƙonewar ya faru sakamakon firestorm, haka ma babbar gobarar Hinckley.

Haka kuma, firestorm ta taɓa faruwa a birane, yawanci sakamakon amfani da abubuwan fashewa da aka nufa kai tsaye, kamar hare-haren jefa bama-bamai masu haddasa gobara a Hamburg, Dresden, da Tokyo, da kuma jefa bam ɗin atomic a Hiroshima.

Hanyar aiki

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Tsarin guguwar wuta: (1) wuta, (2) updraft, (3) iska mai ƙarfi, (A) girgije na pyrocumulonimbus
Guguwar wuta bayan fashewar bam a Hiroshima

Ana samar da firestorm ne sakamakon stack effect, inda zafin gobarar farko ke jawo ƙarin iska daga kewayen wurin. Wannan shigar iska na iya ƙaruwa cikin sauri idan akwai jet stream mai ƙarancin tsayi a saman gobarar ko kusa da ita. Yayin da iska mai ɗagawa sama ke ƙara ƙarfi kuma ta bazu kamar naman kaza, iska mai ƙarfi da ke kadawa zuwa cikin gobarar tana tasowa a kewayenta, tana samar mata da ƙarin iska.

Wannan yanayin zai iya hana firestorm ya bazu tare da iska, amma gagarumar rikicewar iska da ke samuwa na iya kuma sa iskar da ke shigowa daga saman ƙasa mai ƙarfi ta sauya alkibla ba tare da tsari ba. Firestorm da suka samo asali sakamakon jefa bama-bamai a yankunan birane a lokacin Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, galibi sun kasance a cikin wuraren da aka fara jefawa abubuwan da ke haddasa gobara, kuma gobarar ba ta bazu sosai zuwa wajen waɗannan wuraren ba.[4]

Guguwar wuta na iya zama mesocyclone kuma ya haifar da guguwa ta gaskiya / wuta. Wannan ya faru ne tare da gobarar Durango ta 2002, [5] kuma mai yiwuwa tare da gobara mafi girma na Peshtigo. [6][7] Babban tsari na guguwar wuta yana jawo yawan iskar oxygen, wanda ke kara yawan konewa, don haka kuma yana kara yawan samar da zafi. Rashin zafi mai tsanani na guguwar wuta yana bayyana a matsayin zafi mai haske (infrared radiation), wanda zai iya ƙone kayan wuta a nesa a gaban wuta kanta.[8][9]   [daidaitaccen tabbatarwa] Wannan kuma yana aiki don fadada yankin da tsananin guguwar wuta.   [daidaitaccen tabbaci] Rashin ƙarfi, iska mai saurin iska yana shan kayan motsawa cikin wuta kuma kamar yadda aka lura da duk wani mummunan wuta, zafi mai zafi daga wuta na iya narke wasu karafa, gilashi, da kuma juya titin titin zuwa ruwan zafi mai cin wuta. Babban yanayin zafi yana ƙone duk abin da zai iya ƙonewa, har sai guguwar wuta ta ƙare da man fetur.

Firestorm ba ya kunna abubuwan da ke nesa da shi a gaba ta hanya mai muhimmanci; a zahiri, zafin da yake samarwa yana busar da waɗannan abubuwa, yana sa su fi saurin kama da wuta ta hanyar tartsatsin wuta ko ƙananan garwashin wuta da iska ke ɗauka, wanda hakan ke ƙara saurin bazuwar wuraren da gobara ke kama.

A lokacin da firestorm ke samuwa, gobarori da yawa suna haɗuwa su zama ginshiƙi guda na iska mai zafi da ke ɗagawa daga yankin da ake ci da wuta. Ana kuma samun iska mai ƙarfi da gobarar ta haifar, wadda ke kadawa daga kowane gefe zuwa cikin wannan ginshiƙin iska mai ɗagawa. Saboda haka, gaban gobarar yakan kasance a kusan wuri guda, yayin da iskar da ke kwarara zuwa cikin gobarar ke hana ta bazuwa zuwa waje.[10]

Bayyana guguwar wuta

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Guguwar wuta tana da karfi da iska mai karfi da ke busawa zuwa wuta, a ko'ina kusa da iyakar wuta, tasirin da ke haifar da tashiwar ginshiƙi mai zafi a kan wuta mai tsanani, yana jawo iska mai sanyi daga gefen. Wadannan iskõki daga kewayon suna busa alamun wuta a cikin yankin konewa kuma suna sanyaya man fetur da ba a kunna ba a waje da yankin wuta don ƙone kayan da ke waje da kewayon ta hanyar zafi mai zafi da wuta ya fi wuya, don haka iyakance yaduwar wuta.[4] A Hiroshima, an ce wannan gaggawar ciyar da wuta ta hana yankin guguwar wuta daga fadadawa, kuma ta haka ne guguwar ta kasance a yankin birnin da fashewar ta lalata.[11]

Hoton pyro-cumulonimbus da aka dauka daga jirgin sama na kasuwanci da ke tafiya a kusan kilomita 10. A shekara ta 2002 kayan aiki daban-daban sun gano abubuwan girgije na pyrocumulonimbus 17 a Arewacin Amurka kadai.[12]

Manyan gobarar daji da suka bazu sosai (conflagrations) sun bambanta da firestorm idan suna da gaban gobara mai motsi wanda iskar da ke kewaye ke tura shi, kuma ba sa samar da nasu tsarin iska kamar yadda ainihin firestorm ke yi. (Wannan ba yana nufin cewa firestorm dole ne ya kasance a wuri guda ba; kamar kowace irin guguwa mai ɗagawa, zagayawar iskar na iya bin bambancin matsin iska da iskoki na kewayen wurin, idan hakan ya kai ta zuwa sabbin abubuwan da za su iya kama da wuta.)

Bugu da ƙari, babbar gobara da ba firestorm ba na iya samo asali daga wuri guda da wuta ta fara, yayin da firestorm aka taɓa lura da samuwarta ne kawai a wuraren da gobarori masu yawa ke ci lokaci guda a wani yanki mai faɗi sosai.[13] Amma akwai wani muhimmin sharadi: yawan gobarorin da ke ci lokaci guda dole ne ya kai wani mataki na musamman kafin firestorm ta samu. Misali mai bayyana hakan shi ne gobarar man fetur ta Kuwait ta shekarar 1991, inda gobarori masu yawa suka ci lokaci guda a wani babban yanki, amma firestorm ba ta samu ba saboda tazarar da ke tsakanin gobarar ɗaya da ɗaya ta yi yawa.[13]

Babban yanayin zafi a cikin yankin hadari yana ƙone mafi yawan duk abin da zai iya ƙonewa, har sai an kai wani wuri, wato, a kan raguwa a kan man fetur, wanda ke faruwa bayan hadari ya cinye yawancin man fetur da ke cikin yankin hadarin wuta cewa yawan man fetur wanda ake buƙata don tsarin iskar hadari ya sauka ƙasa da matakin ƙofar, a wannan lokacin da hadari ya fashe cikin ƙarancin wuta.

A Ostiraliya, yaduwar itatuwan eucalyptus waɗanda ke da mai a cikin ganye suna haifar da gobarar daji waɗanda aka lura da tsayinsu mai tsayi da wuta mai ƙarfi. Saboda haka gobarar daji ta bayyana a matsayin guguwar wuta fiye da gobarar daji mai sauƙi. Wani lokaci, fitar da iskar gas mai cin wuta daga maras kyau (misali, methane) yana da irin wannan sakamako.  Misali, fashewar methane ta tilasta Wutar Peshtigo.[5][14]

Yanayi da tasirin yanayi

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Firestorms zai samar da girgije mai zafi mai zafi na tururi na ruwa wanda zai samar da hadari yayin da ya shiga yanayin sanyi, yana samar da abin da aka sani da girgije na pyrocumulus ("girgije na wuta") ko, idan ya isa, girgije na pyrocumulonimbus ("hadari na wuta"). Misali, ruwan sama mai baƙar fata wanda ya fara faɗuwa kusan minti 20 bayan fashewar Bamai na nukiliya na Hiroshima ya samar da jimlar 5-10 cm na ruwan sama mai cike da baƙar fata a cikin sa'o'i 1-3.[15]  Bugu da ƙari, idan yanayin ya yi daidai, babban pyrocumulus na iya girma cikin pyrocumulonimbus kuma ya samar da walƙiya, wanda zai iya haifar da ƙarin wuta. Baya ga gobarar birni da gandun daji, ana iya samar da girgije na pyrocumulus ta hanyar fashewar dutsen wuta saboda yawan kayan zafi da aka kafa.

A cikin nahiyoyi da duniya, nesa da kusanci kai tsaye na wuta, an gano hadari na gobarar daji wanda ke haifar da abubuwan girgije na pyrocumulonimbus "da mamaki akai-akai" suna haifar da ƙananan tasirin "kayan hunturu na nukiliya".[16][12][17][18] Wadannan suna kama da ƙananan hunturu na dutsen wuta, tare da kowane ƙarin iskar gas ta dutse mai wuta a kara zurfin sanyaya "winter", daga kusan-imperceptible zuwa "shekara ba tare da bazara ba".

Pyro-cumulonimbus da tasirin yanayi (a cikin gobarar daji)

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Wani muhimmin bangare amma wanda ba a fahimta sosai game da halayyar gobarar daji shine pyrocumulonimbus (pyroCb) yanayin guguwar wuta da tasirin su na yanayi. Wadannan an kwatanta su da kyau a cikin binciken Black Asabar da ke ƙasa. "PyroCb" wuta ce da aka fara ko kuma wuta da aka kara tsawa wanda a cikin mafi girman bayyanarsa yana ba da hayaki mai yawa da sauran hayaki masu ƙonewa a cikin ƙananan stratosphere. Yaduwar hayaki da sauran hayaki da aka lura da shi ya san muhimman tasirin yanayi. Bayyanawa kai tsaye na stratospheric aerosols zuwa pyroCbs ya faru ne kawai a cikin shekaru goma da suka gabata.[19]

Irin wannan matsanancin allurar da tsawa ta yi a baya an yanke hukunci da shi ba zai yiwu ba saboda ana ɗaukar extratropical tropopause a matsayin shingen da ke da ƙarfi ga convection. Jigogi biyu masu maimaitawa sun bunkasa yayin da bincike na pyroCb ya bayyana. Na farko, abubuwan lura da ke tattare da stratospheric aerosol - da sauran yadudduka da aka ruwaito a matsayin aerosol na dutsen wuta yanzu ana iya bayyana su dangane da pyroconvection. Na biyu, abubuwan pyroCb suna faruwa da mamaki akai-akai, kuma suna iya zama wani bangare mai dacewa na gobarar daji da yawa.[19]

A matakin intraseasonal an tabbatar da cewa pyroCbs yana faruwa da mamaki. A shekara ta 2002, akalla 17 pyroCbs sun fashe a Arewacin Amurka kadai. Har yanzu ba a tantance shi ba ne sau da yawa wannan tsari ya faru a cikin gandun daji na Asiya a cikin 2002. Koyaya, yanzu an tabbatar da cewa wannan mafi girman nau'in pyroconvection, tare da mafi yawan pyrocumulus convection, ya bazu kuma ya ci gaba da akalla watanni biyu. Matsayin allurar rigakafi na hayaki na pyroCb shine saman troposphere, kuma wasu daga cikin wadannan guguwa suna gurɓata ƙananan stratosphere. Don haka, sabon godiya ga rawar da matsanancin halayyar gobarar daji da tasirin yanayi yanzu suna zuwa cikin mayar da hankali.[19]

Black Asabar firestorm (Binciken yanayin Wildfire)

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Tarihi

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Wutar daji ta Black Asabar wasu daga cikin gobarar da ta fi lalacewa a Ostiraliya da ke fadawa ƙarƙashin rukunin "guguwa" saboda mummunan halayyar wuta da alaƙa da martani na yanayi wanda ya faru a lokacin gobarar. Wannan babban taron gobarar daji ya haifar da wasu nau'ikan pyrocumulonimbus masu amfani da wutar lantarki da suka kai kusan kilomita 15.  Wadannan fuka-fukan an tabbatar da su da saukin kamuwa da sabon wuta a gaban babban wuta. Sabon gobarar da aka kunna ta wannan walƙiya ta pyrogenic ta kara nuna ra'ayoyin ra'ayi na tasiri tsakanin yanayi da halayyar wuta a ranar Asabar Black da ke da alaƙa da waɗannan matakai na pyroconvective.[20]

Guguwar wuta ta birni

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Hoton annabci na Liberty na 1918 na Joseph Pennell ya kira hoton hoto na Birnin New York da aka lalata, wanda ya cika da guguwar wuta. A lokacin, makamai da ke akwai ga rundunonin sojan sama daban-daban na duniya ba su da isasshen ƙarfi don samar da irin wannan sakamako.

Hakanan kimiyyar ƙonewa na iya amfani da tsarin da mutum ya yi kamar birane a lokacin yaƙi ko bala'i.

Ana zaton guguwar wuta ta kasance wani ɓangare na tsarin manyan gobarar birane, kamar yadda ya kasance tare da girgizar ƙasa ta Lisbon ta 1755, girgizar ƙasar San Francisco ta 1906 da girgijin ƙasa mai girma na Kantō ta 1923. Guguwar gobara ta gaske tana faruwa akai-akai a cikin gobarar daji ta California, kamar Bala'in gobarar daji na 1991 a Oakland, California, da kuma gobarar Tubbs wuta Oktoba 2017 a Santa Rosa, California.

A lokacin Yulin-Agusta 2018 Carr Fire, wani mummunan wuta mai kama da girman da ƙarfi ga guguwar EF-3 ya haifar a lokacin guguwar wuta a Redding, California kuma ya haifar da lalacewar iska kamar guguwa.[21] Wani gobarar daji wanda za'a iya kwatanta shi da guguwar wuta shine Wutar Gidan, wanda a wani lokaci ya yi tafiya a saurin har zuwa kadada 76 a minti daya, ya lalata garin Aljanna, California gaba ɗaya a cikin awanni 24 a ranar 8 ga Nuwamba, 2018.[22]

Har ila yau, an halicci Firestorm ta hanyar hare-haren bam na yakin duniya na biyu a biranen kamar Hamburg da Dresden . [23]  Daga cikin makaman nukiliya guda biyu da aka yi amfani da su a yaƙi, Hiroshima ce kawai ta haifar da guguwar wuta.[24]Masana gwamnatin Amurka sun yi iƙirarin cewa guguwar wuta ba za ta yiwu ba bayan fashewar nukiliya a cikin birni na zamani, amma ƙungiyar manyan masana 10 kan ilimin yanayi, samar da abinci da tattalin arziki ba su yarda ba.

City / event Date of the firestorm Notes
Bombing of Hamburg in World War II (Germany)[23] 27 July 1943 46,000 dead.[25] A firestorm area of approximately 4.5 square miles (12 km2) was reported at Hamburg.[26]
Bombing of Kassel in World War II (Germany) 22 October 1943 9,000 dead. 24,000 dwellings destroyed. Area burned 23 square miles (60 km2); the percentage of this area which was destroyed by conventional conflagration and that destroyed by firestorm is unspecified. Although a much larger area was destroyed by fire in Kassel than even Tokyo and Hamburg, the city fire caused a smaller less extensive firestorm than that at Hamburg.[27]
Bombing of Darmstadt in World War II (Germany) 11 September 1944 8,000 dead. Area destroyed by fire 4 square miles (10 km2). Again the percentage of this which was done by firestorm remains unspecified. 20,000 dwellings and one chemical works destroyed and industrial production reduced.[28]
Bombing of Dresden in World War II (Germany)[23] 13–15 February 1945 From 22,700 to 25,000 people[29] were killed. A firestorm area of approximately 8 square miles (21 km2) was reported at Dresden.[26] The attack was centered on the readily identifiable Ostragehege sports stadium.
Bombing of Tokyo in World War II (Japan) 9–10 March 1945 The firebombing of Tokyo started many fires which converged into a devastating conflagration covering 16 square miles (41 km2). Although often described as a firestorm event,[24][30] the conflagration did not generate a firestorm as the high prevailing surface winds gusting at 17 to 28 miles per hour (27 to 45 km/h) at the time of the fire overrode the fire's ability to form its own wind system. These high winds increased by about 50% the damage done by the incendiary bombs. There were 267,171 buildings destroyed, and between 83,793 and 100,000 killed,[31] making this the most lethal air raid in history, with destruction to life and property greater than that caused by the use of nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Prior to the attack, the city had the highest population density of any industrial city in the world.
Bombing of Ube, Yamaguchi in World War II (Japan) 1 July 1945 A momentary firestorm of about 0.5 square miles (1.3 km2) was reported at Ube, Japan.[26] The reports that the Ube bombing produced a firestorm, along with computer modelling,[ana buƙatar hujja] have set one of the four physical conditions which a city fire must meet to have the potential of developing true firestorm effects, as the size of the Ube firestorm is the smallest ever confirmed. Glasstone and Dolan:
Atomic bombing of Hiroshima in World War II (Japan) 6 August 1945 Firestorm covering 4.4 square miles (11 km2).[32] No estimate can be given of the number of fire deaths, for the fire area was largely within the blast damage region.[33]

Bomba na wuta

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Braunschweig yana ƙonewa bayan harin bam na sama a 1944. Lura cewa har yanzu ba a samu wani hadari a cikin wannan hoton ba, kamar yadda ake ganin gobara guda daya da ke ƙonewa, kuma ba babbar wuta guda ɗaya ba wacce ke nuna alamar hadari.

Firebombing wata dabara ce da aka tsara don lalata manufa, gabaɗaya birni, ta hanyar amfani da wuta, wanda na'urorin ƙonewa suka haifar, maimakon daga tasirin fashewar manyan bama-bamai. Irin waɗannan hare-haren galibi suna amfani da na'urorin konewa da manyan fashewa. Babban fashewar yana lalata rufin, yana sauƙaƙa ga na'urorin ƙonewa su shiga cikin gine-gine kuma su haifar da wuta. Babban fashewar kuma tana rushe ikon masu kashe gobara don kashe gobarar.[23]

Kodayake an yi amfani da bama-bamai masu cin wuta don lalata gine-gine tun farkon yakin gunpowder, Yaƙin Duniya na II ya ga amfani na farko na dabarun bama-bomb daga iska don lalata ikon abokan gaba na yin yaƙi.  Blitz" id="mwAd4" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="London Blitz">Landan, Coventry, da sauran biranen Burtaniya da yawa sun kone a lokacin Blitz. Yawancin manyan biranen Jamus sun kasance da wuta sosai tun daga 1942, kuma kusan dukkanin manyan biranen Japan sun kasance da gobara a cikin watanni shida da suka gabata na yakin duniya na biyu.  Kamar yadda Sir Arthur Harris, jami'in da ke jagorantar RAF Bomber Command daga 1942 har zuwa karshen yakin a Turai, ya nuna a cikin bincikensa na bayan yakin, kodayake an yi ƙoƙari da yawa don ƙirƙirar ƙonewar da aka yi da gangan a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu, 'yan ƙoƙari kaɗan ne suka yi nasara: 

Biranen ƙarni na 21 idan aka kwatanta da biranen Yaƙin Duniya na II

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Tebur na Sojojin Sama na Amurka wanda ke nuna jimlar adadin bama-bamai da Allies suka jefa a manyan birane bakwai na Jamus a duk lokacin yakin duniya na biyu.
Birni Yawan jama'a a cikin 1939 Girman Amurka Girman Burtaniya Jimlar tonnage
Berlin 4,339,000 22,090 45,517 67,607
Hamburg 1,129,000 17,104 22,583 39,687
Munich 841,000 11,471 7,858 19,329
Cologne 772,000 10,211 34,712 44,923
Leipzig 707,000 5,410 6,206 11,616
Essen 667,000 1,518 36,420 37,938
Dresden 642,000 4,441 2,659 7,100

Makaman nukiliya idan aka kwatanta da makamai na al'ada

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Sakamakon fashewar nukiliya ba ya gabatar da wani fasalin musamman. A ka'idar, ana iya samun sakamako iri ɗaya game da lalacewar rayuwa da dukiya ta hanyar amfani da bama-bamai masu fashewa da fashewa.[13]An kiyasta, alal misali, cewa irin wannan gobarar da aka samu a Hiroshima ta hanyar bam din nukiliya guda 16 daga B-29 guda ɗaya na iya samar da kimanin tan 1,200 / 1.2 kilotons na bama-bamai masu cin wuta daga 220 B-29s da aka rarraba a kan birnin; ga Nagasaki, bam din nukliya guda 21 kiloton da aka jefa a kan birnin na iya kimantawa da tan 1,200 na bama-mamai masu cin abinci daga 125 B-29s.[13][34][35]

Yana iya zama kamar ba daidai ba ne cewa adadin lalacewar wuta da makamin nukiliya ya haifar zai iya haifar da ƙaramin jimlar dubban bama-bamai masu cin wuta; duk da haka, kwarewar yakin duniya na biyu ta goyi bayan wannan ikirarin. Misali, kodayake ba cikakkiyar kwayar birnin Hiroshima ba ce a cikin 1945, a cikin fashewar bam na al'ada na Dresden, hadin gwiwar Royal Air Force (RAF) da Sojojin Sama na Amurka (USAAF) sun sauke jimlar tan 3441.3 (kimanin 3.4 ) na (kimani rabin su bama-bamai ne masu cin wuta) a daren 13-14 Fabrairu 1945, kuma wannan ya haifar da "fiye da murabba'in mil 2.5 (6.5 ) na birnin da wuta da wuta da hadari mai iko kamar yadda aka lalata bisa ga wani tushe na iko (21 km2).[26]

Dubi kuma

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  • Rashin aiki (lokacin yaƙi)
  • Rashin farar hula na fashewar bama-bamai
  • Wutar wuta
  • Wutar daji
  • Tsarin gobarar daji

Hadarin da zai yiwu

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Sau da yawa ana bayyana wasu sassan gobarar da ke biyowa a matsayin firestorms, amma ba a tabbatar da hakan ta hanyar amintaccen nassoshi ba:

  • Babban Wutar Roma (64 AD)
  • Babban Wutar Landan (1666)
  • Babban Wutar Chicago (1871)
  • Girgizar kasa ta San Francisco (1906)
  • Babban girgizar kasa ta Kantō (1923)
  • Ƙonewar Tillamook (1933-1951)
  • Babban Wutar Landan ta Biyu (1940)
  • Wutar daji ta Laraba (1983)
  • Wutar Yellowstone (1988)
  • Wutar daji ta Canberra (2003)
  • Wutar Gidan shakatawa na Okanagan (2003)
  • Wutar daji ta Fort McMurray (2016)
  • Predrógâo Babban gobarar daji (2017)
  • Carr Fire (2018)
  • 2023 Wutar daji ta Maui (2023)

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ Scawthorn, Charles, ed. (2005). Fire following earthquake. Technical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering monograph. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7844-0739-4.
  2. ↑ Alexander Mckee's Dresden 1945: The Devil's Tinderbox
  3. ↑ "Problems of Fire in Nuclear Warfare (1961)" (PDF). Dtic.mil. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2016. A fire storm is characterized by strong to gale force winds blowing toward the fire everywhere around the fire perimeter and results from the rising column of hot gases over an intense, mass fire drawing in the cool air from the periphery. These winds blow the fire brands into the burning area and tend to cool the unignited fuel outside so that ignition by radiated heat is more difficult, thus limiting fire spread.
  4. 1 2 "Problems of fire in Nuclear Warfare 1961" (PDF). Dtic.mil. pp. 8 & 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 2016-05-11.
  5. 1 2 Gess & Lutz 2003
  6. ↑ Hemphill, Stephanie (27 November 2002). "Peshtigo: A Tornado of Fire Revisited". Minnesota Public Radio. Retrieved 22 July 2015. The town was at the center of a tornado of flame. The fire was coming from all directions at once, and the winds were roaring at 100 mph.
  7. ↑ Weaver & Biko 2002.
  8. ↑ James Killus (16 August 2007). "Unintentional Irony: Firestorms". Unintentional-irony.blogspot.no. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  9. ↑ Chris Cavanagh. "Thermal Radiation Damage". Holbert.faculty.asu.edu. Archived from the original on 16 March 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  10. ↑ Glasstone & Dolan 1977, pp. 299, 300, ¶ 7.58.
  11. ↑ "Direct Effects of Nuclear Detonations" (PDF). Dge.stanford.edu. 11 May 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  12. 1 2 Michael Finneran (October 19, 2010). "Fire-Breathing Storm Systems". NASA. Archived from the original on 24 August 2014. Retrieved 2016-05-11. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "NASA Fire-Breathing" defined multiple times with different content.
  13. 1 2 3 Glasstone & Dolan 1977.
  14. ↑ Kartman & Brown 1971.
  15. ↑ "Atmospheric Processes: Chapter=4" (PDF). Globalecology.stanford.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2016-05-11.
  16. ↑ Fromm, M.; Stocks, B.; Servranckx, R.; et al. (2006). "Smoke in the Stratosphere: What Wildfires have Taught Us About Nuclear Winter". Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union. 87 (52 Fall Meet. Suppl): Abstract U14A–04. Bibcode:2006AGUFM.U14A..04F. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014.
  17. ↑ Fromm, M.; Tupper, A.; Rosenfeld, D.; Servranckx, R.; McRae, R. (2006). "Violent pyro-convective storm devastates Australia's capital and pollutes the stratosphere". Geophysical Research Letters. 33 (5): L05815. Bibcode:2006GeoRL..33.5815F. doi:10.1029/2005GL025161. S2CID 128709657.
  18. ↑ Riebeek, Holli (31 August 2010). "Russian Firestorm: Finding a Fire Cloud from Space: Feature Articles". Earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  19. 1 2 3 Fromm, Michael; Lindsey, Daniel T.; Servranckx, René; Yue, Glenn; Trickl, Thomas; Sica, Robert; Doucet, Paul; Godin-Beekmann, Sophie (2010). "The Untold Story of Pyrocumulonimbus". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 91 (9): 1193–1210. Bibcode:2010BAMS...91.1193F. doi:10.1175/2010bams3004.1.
  20. ↑ Dowdy, Andrew J.; Fromm, Michael D.; McCarthy, Nicholas (2017-07-27). "Pyrocumulonimbus lightning and fire ignition on Black Saturday in southeast Australia". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 122 (14). Bibcode:2017JGRD..122.7342D. doi:10.1002/2017jd026577. ISSN 2169-8996. S2CID 134053333.
  21. ↑ "How a weird fire vortex sparked a meteorological mystery". www.nationalgeographic.com. 2018-12-19. Archived from the original on 14 April 2019.
  22. ↑ "The California Report: Report Details Injuries to 5 Firefighters in Camp Fire, Compares Blaze's Ferocity to WWII Attack". KQED News. December 14, 2018. Retrieved December 17, 2018.
  23. 1 2 3 4 Harris 2005
  24. 1 2 American National Fire Protection Association 2005.
  25. ↑ Frankland & Webster 1961.
  26. 1 2 3 4 "Exploratory Analysis of Fire storms". Dtic.mil. Archived from the original on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 2016-05-11.
  27. ↑ "Campaign Diary October 1943". Royal Air Force Bomber Command 60th Anniversary. Archived from the original on 3 March 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2009.
  28. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named "scribd.com".
  29. ↑ Nicole Invalid |url-status=Widera (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  30. ↑ David McNeill (10 March 2005). "The night hell fell from the sky (Korean translation available)". Japan Focus. Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2010.
  31. ↑ Technical Sergeant Steven Wilson (25 February 2010). "This month in history: The firebombing of Dresden". Ellsworth Air Force Base. United States Air Force. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
  32. ↑ McRaney & McGahan 1980.
  33. ↑ "Exploratory Analysis of Fire Storms". Dtic.mil. Archived from the original on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
  34. ↑ Franklin D'Olier. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  35. ↑ "United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Summary Report". Marshall.csu.edu.au. 9 October 2005. Retrieved 2016-05-11.
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