Perak
Perak | |
|---|---|
| State of Perak Negeri Perak (Malay) | |
| Nickname(s): Darul Ridzuan (Abode of Grace) | |
| Anthem: Allah Lanjutkan Usia Sultan "God Lengthen the Sultan's Age" | |
 | |
| Country |  Malaysia |
| Established the Sultanate | 1528 |
| Pangkor Treaty | 1874 |
| Federated into FMS | 1895 |
| Japanese occupation | 1942 |
| Accession into the Federation of Malaya | 1948 |
| Independence as part of the Federation of Malaya | 31 August 1957 |
| Capital and largest city | Ipoh 4°36′N 101°4′E / 4.600°N 101.067°E |
| Royal capital | Kuala Kangsar |
| Official languages | |
| Ethnic groups |
|
| Demonym(s) | Perakian |
| Government | Federated parliamentary constitutional monarchy |
• Sultan | Nazrin Shah |
| Saarani Mohamad (BN–UMNO) | |
| Area[1] | |
• Total | 20,976 km2 (8,099 sq mi) |
| Highest elevation | 2,183 m (7,162 ft) |
| Population | |
• 2018 estimate | 2,500,000 |
| GDP (PPP) | 2022 estimate |
• Total |  $50.768 billion |
• Per capita | $23,370 |
| GDP (nominal) | 2022 estimate |
• Total | $21.161 billion (RM 93.112 billion) (7th) |
• Per capita | $8,391 (RM 36,924)[2] |
| HDI (2024) | 0.798 high · 11th |
| Currency | Malaysian ringgit (RM/Rm.) (MYR) |
| Time zone | UTC+8 (MST) |
| Calling code | 033 to 058[3] |
| Postal code | |
| ISO 3166 code | MY-08, 36–39[6] |
| Website | Official website  |
Perak (Malay pronunciation: [peraʔ]; Perak Malay: Peghok) is a state of Malaysia on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. Perak has land borders with the Malaysian states of Kedah to the north, Penang to the northwest, Kelantan and Pahang to the east, and Selangor to the south. Thailand's Yala and Narathiwat provinces both lie to the northeast. Perak's capital city, Ipoh, was known historically for its tin-mining activities until the price of the metal dropped, severely affecting the state's economy. The royal capital remains Kuala Kangsar, where the palace of the Sultan of Perak is located. The state's population is 2,000,000.
Perak has diverse tropical rainforests and an equatorial climate. The state's main mountain ranges are composed of the Titiwangsa, Bintang and Keledang Ranges, where all of them are part of the larger Tenasserim Hills system that connects Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia.
The discovery of an ancient skeleton in Perak revealed missing information on the migration of Homo sapiens from mainland Asia through Southeast Asia to the Australian continent. Known as Perak Man, the skeleton is dated at around 10,000 years old. An early Hindu or Buddhist kingdom, followed by several other minor kingdoms, existed before the arrival of Islam. By 1528, a Muslim sultanate began to emerge in Perak, out of the remnants of the Malaccan Sultanate. Although able to resist Siamese occupation for more than two hundred years, the sultanate was partly controlled by the Sumatra-based Aceh Sultanate. This was particularly the case after the Aceh lineage took over the royal succession. With the arrival of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), and the VOC's increasing conflicts with Aceh, Perak began to distance itself from Acehnese control. The presence of the English East India Company (EIC) in the nearby Straits Settlements of Penang provided additional protection for the state, with further Siamese attempts to conquer Perak thwarted by British expeditionary forces.
The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 was signed to prevent further conflict between the British and the Dutch. It enabled the British to expand their control in the Malay Peninsula without interference from other foreign powers. The 1874 Pangkor Treaty provided for direct British intervention, with Perak appointing a British Resident. Following Perak's subsequent absorption into the Federated Malay States (FMS), the British reformed administration of the sultanate through a new style of government, actively promoting a market-driven economy and maintaining law and order while combatting the slavery widely practised across Perak at the time. The three-year Japanese occupation in World War II halted further progress. After the war, Perak became part of the temporary Malayan Union, before being absorbed into the Federation of Malaya. It gained full independence through the Federation, which subsequently became Malaysia on 16 September 1963.
Perak is ethnically, culturally and linguistically diverse. The state is known for several traditional dances: bubu, dabus, and labu sayong, the latter name also referring to Perak's unique traditional pottery. The head of state is the Sultan of Perak, and the head of government is the Menteri Besar. The state government is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system, with the state administration divided into administrative districts. There are 12 administrative districts in Perak, namely Batang Padang, Hilir Perak, Hulu Perak, Kampar, Kerian, Kinta, Kuala Kangsar, Larut Matang dan Selama, Manjung, Muallim, Perak Tengah and Bagan Datuk. Islam is the state religion, and other religions may be practised freely. Malay is the official language of Perak but English, Mandarin and Tamil are widely spoken. The economy is mainly based on services and manufacturing.
Etymology
[edit]There are many theories about the origin of the name Perak.[7][8] Although not used until after 1529, the most popular etymology is "silver" (in Malay: perak);[9] associated with tin mining from the state's large mineral deposits, reflecting Perak's position as one of the world's largest sources of tin.[7][10][11] The first Islamic kingdom established in the state was of the lineage of the Sultanate of Malacca.[11] Some local historians have suggested that Perak was named after Malacca's bendahara, Tun Perak.[7][12] In maps prior to 1561, the area is marked as Perat.[11] Other historians believe that the name Perak derives from the Malay phrase "kilatan ikan dalam air" (the glimmer of fish in water), which looks like silver.[7][8] Perak has been translated into Arabic as دار الرضوان (Dār al-Riḍwān), "abode of grace".[13]
History
[edit]
Sultanate of Perak 1528–1895
Federated Malay States 1895–1942
Empire of Japan 1942–1945
Federation of Malaya 1948–1963
Prehistory
[edit]
Among the prehistoric sites in Malaysia where artefacts from the Middle Palaeolithic era have been found are Bukit Bunuh, Bukit Gua Harimau, Bukit Jawa, Bukit Kepala Gajah, and Kota Tampan in the Lenggong Archaeological Heritage Valley.[14][15] Of these, Bukit Bunuh and Kota Tampan are ancient lakeside sites, the geology of Bukit Bunuh showing evidence of meteoric impact.[16] The 10,000-year-old skeleton known as Perak Man was found inside the Bukit Gunung Runtuh cave at Bukit Kepala Gajah.[17][18] Ancient tools discovered in the area of Kota Tampan, including anvils, cores, debitage, and hammerstones, provide information on the migrations of Homo sapiens.[16] Other important Neolithic sites in the country include Bukit Gua Harimau, Gua Badak, Gua Pondok, and Padang Rengas, containing evidence of human presence in the Mesolithic Hoabinhian era.[19][20]
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In 1959, a British artillery officer stationed at an inland army base during the Malayan Emergency discovered the Tambun rock art, identified by archaeologists as the largest rock art site in the Malay Peninsula. Most of the paintings are located high above the cave floor, at an elevation of 6–10 metres (20–33 ft).[22][23] Seashells and coral fragments scattered along the cave floor are evidence that the area was once underwater.[24]
The significant numbers of statues of Hindu deities and of the Buddha found in Bidor, Kuala Selensing, Jalong, and Pengkalan Pegoh indicate that, before the arrival of Islam, the inhabitants of Perak were mainly Hindu or Buddhist. The influence of Indian culture and beliefs on society and values in the Malay Peninsula from early times is believed to have culminated in the semi-legendary Gangga Negara kingdom.[20][25][26] The Malay Annals mention that Gangga Negara at one time fell under Siamese rule, before Raja Suran of Thailand sailed further south down the Malay Peninsula.[27]
Sultanate of Perak
[edit]By the 15th century, a kingdom named Beruas had come into existence. Inscriptions found on early tombstones of the period show clear Islamic influence, believed to have originated from the Sultanate of Malacca, the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, and the rural areas of the Perak River.[20][28] The first organised local government systems to emerge in Perak were the Manjung government and several other governments in Central and Hulu Perak (Upper Perak) under Raja Roman and Tun Saban.[20] With the spread of Islam, a sultanate subsequently emerged in Perak; the second oldest Muslim kingdom in the Malay Peninsula after the neighbouring Kedah Sultanate.[29] Based on Salasilah Raja-Raja Perak (Perak Royal Genealogy), the Perak Sultanate was formed in the early 16th century on the banks of the Perak River by the eldest son of Mahmud Shah, the 8th Sultan of Malacca.[30][31][32] He ascended to the throne as Muzaffar Shah I, first Sultan of Perak, after surviving the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese in 1511 and living quietly for a period in Siak on the island of Sumatra. He became sultan through the efforts of Tun Saban, a local leader and trader between Perak and Klang.[31] There had been no sultan in Perak when Tun Saban first arrived in the area from Kampar in Sumatra.[33] Most of the area's residents were traders from Malacca and Selangor, and from Siak, Kampar, and Jambi in Sumatra. Among them was an old woman, Tok Masuka from Daik, who raised a Temusai child named Nakhoda Kassim.[33] Before her death, she called on the ancestors of Sang Sapurba to take her place, to prevent the royal lineage from disappearing from the Malay Peninsula. Tun Saban and Nakhoda Kassim then travelled to Kampar, where Mahmud Shah agreed to their request and named his son the first Sultan of Perak.[33][34]
Perak's administration became more organised after the sultanate was established and adopted Malacca's form of elective monarchy.[8] With the opening up of Perak in the 16th century, the state became a source of tin ore. It appears that anyone was free to trade in the commodity, although the tin trade did not attract significant attention until the 1610s.[35][36]
Throughout the 1570s, the Sultanate of Aceh subjected most parts of the Malay Peninsula to continual harassment.[31][37] The sudden disappearance of Perak's Sultan Mansur Shah I in 1577 gave rise to rumours of abduction by Acehnese forces.[37] Soon afterwards, the late sultan's widow and his 16 children were taken as captives to Sumatra.[31][37] Sultan Mansur Shah I's eldest son, Raja Alauddin Mansur Syah, married an Acehnese princess and subsequently became the Sultan of Aceh. The Sultanate of Perak was left without a ruling monarch, and Perak nobles went to Aceh in the same year to ask the new Sultan Alauddin for a successor.[31] The ruler sent his younger brother to become Perak's third monarch. Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin Shah ruled Perak for seven years, maintaining the unbroken lineage of the Malacca dynasty.[31] Although Perak did fall under the authority of the Acehnese Sultanate, it remained entirely independent of Siamese control for over two hundred years from 1612,[37][38] in contrast with its neighbour, Kedah, and many of the Malay sultanates in the northern part of the Malay Peninsula, which became tributary states of Siam.[39][40] In 1620, the Acehnese sultanate invaded Perak and captured its sultan.
When Sultan Sallehuddin Riayat Shah died without an heir in 1635, a state of uncertainty prevailed in Perak. This was exacerbated by a deadly cholera epidemic that swept through the state, killing many royal family members.[31] Perak chieftains were left with no alternative but to turn to Aceh's sultan Iskandar Thani, who sent his relative, Raja Sulong, to become the new Sultan of Perak as Muzaffar Shah II.
Aceh's influence on Perak began to wane when the Dutch East India Company (VOC) arrived, in the mid-17th century.[37] When Perak refused to enter into a contract with the VOC as its northern neighbours had done, a blockade of the Perak River was ordered that halted the tin trade, causing suffering among Aceh's merchants.[41] In 1650, Aceh's sultana Taj ul-Alam ordered Perak to sign an agreement with the VOC, on the condition that the tin trade would be conducted exclusively with Aceh's merchants.[30][41][42][43] By the following year, the VOC had secured a monopoly over the tin trade, setting up a store in Perak.[44] Following long competition between Aceh and the VOC over Perak's tin trade,[45] on 15 December 1653, the two parties jointly signed a treaty with Perak granting the Dutch exclusive rights to tin extracted from mines located in the state.[31][46]
A fort was built on Pangkor Island in 1670 to act as a warehouse to store tin ore mined in Perak even though Perak nobles had destroyed an earlier store structure, on orders from the Dutch base in Batavia.[44] This warehouse was also destroyed in further attacks in 1690, but was repaired when the Dutch returned with reinforcements.[44] In 1699, when the regionally dominant Sultanate of Johor lost its last Malaccan dynasty sultan, Sultan Mahmud Shah II, Perak now had the sole claim of being the final heir of the Sultanate of Malacca. However, Perak could not match the prestige and power of either the Malacca or Johor Sultanates.[47]
The early 18th century started with 40 years of civil war where rival princes were bolstered by local chiefs, the Bugis and Minang, fighting for a share of the tin revenue. The Bugis and several Perak chiefs were successful in ousting the Perak ruler, Sultan Muzaffar Riayat Shah III in 1743.[47] In 1747, Sultan Muzaffar Riayat Shah III, now only holding power in the area of Upper Perak, signed a treaty with Dutch Commissioner Ary Verbrugge under which Perak's ruler recognised the Dutch monopoly over the tin trade, agreed to sell all tin ore to Dutch traders, and allowed the Dutch to build a new warehouse fort on the Perak River estuary.[48] With construction of the new warehouse near the Perak River (also known as Sungai Perak), the old warehouse was abandoned permanently and left in ruins.[44]
The mid-18th century saw Sultan Muzaffar ruling inland Perak while the coastal region was ruled by Raja Iskandar, animosity grew between the two as Raja Iskandar was unable to reach the tin-bearing highlands while the Sultan had restricted access to the strait. Reconciliation occurred later with Iskandar's marriage to the Sultan's daughter. His[whose?] accession in 1752 saw unprecedented peace in Perak, especially due to an alliance (which lasted until 1795) with the Dutch to protect Perak against external attacks.[49]
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When repeated Burmese invasions resulted in the destruction and defeat of the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1767 by the Burmese Konbaung dynasty, neighbouring Malay tributary states began to assert their independence from Siam.[50] To further develop Perak's tin mines, the Dutch administration suggested that its 17th sultan, Alauddin Mansur Shah Iskandar Muda, should allow Chinese miners into Perak. The sultan himself encouraged the scheme in 1776, requesting that additional Chinese workers be sent from Dutch Malacca.[51] The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War in 1780 adversely affected the tin trade in Perak, and many Chinese miners left.[52] In a move which angered the Siamese court, neighbouring Kedah's Sultan Abdullah Mukarram Shah then entered into an agreement with the British East India Company (EIC), ceding Penang Island to the British in 1786 in exchange for protection.[53][54][55]
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Siam regained strength under the Thonburi Kingdom, led by Taksin, after freeing itself from Burmese occupation. After repelling another large-scale Burmese invasion, the Rattanakosin Kingdom (Chakri dynasty) led by Rama I, as the successor of the Thonburi Kingdom, turned its attention to its insubordinate southern Malay subjects, fearing renewed attacks from Burma along the western seaboard of the Malay Peninsula.[39][57] Attention to the south was also needed because of disunity and rivalries among the various southern tributary sultanates, stemming from personal conflicts and a reluctance to submit to Siamese authority.[57] One example of this resistance was the Sultanate of Pattani under Sultan Muhammad, who refused to aid Siam during the Siamese war of liberation. This led Rama I's younger brother, Prince Surasi, to attack Pattani in 1786. Many Malays were killed, and survivors were taken to the Siamese stronghold in Bangkok as slaves.[40][50][58][59] Siam's subjugation of Pattani served as a warning to the other Malay tributary states, particularly Kedah, they too having been forced to provide thousands of men, and food supplies, throughout the Siamese resistance campaign against the Burmese.[40][60]
In 1795, the Dutch temporarily withdrew from Malacca for the duration of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. Malacca's authority was transferred to the British Resident.[30][61] When war ended, the Dutch returned to administer Malacca in 1818.[62] In 1818, the Dutch monopoly over the tin trade in Perak was renewed, with the signing of a new recognition treaty.[63] In the same year as when Perak refused to send a bunga mas tribute to the Siamese court, the king Rama II of Siam had Kedah attack Perak. The Sultanate of Kedah knew the intention behind the order was to weaken ties between fellow Malay states,[60][64][65] but complied, unable to resist Siam's further territorial expansion into inland Hulu Perak. Siam's tributary Malay state, the Kingdom of Reman, then illegally operated tin mines in Klian Intan, angering the Sultan of Perak and provoking a dispute that escalated into civil war. Reman, aided by Siam, succeeded in controlling several inland districts.[66]
In 1821, Siam invaded and conquered the Sultanate of Kedah, angered by a breach of trust.[57][60][67] The exiled Sultan of Kedah turned to the British to help him regain his throne, despite Britain's policy of non-engagement in expensive minor wars in the Malay Peninsula at the time, which the EIC upheld through the Governor-General of India.[40][65] Siam's subsequent plan to extend its conquests to the southern territory of Perak[37][62][65] failed after Perak defeated the Siamese forces with the aid of mixed Bugis and Malay reinforcements from the Sultanate of Selangor.[37][40][64][67] As an expression of gratitude to Selangor for assisting it to defeat Siam, Perak authorised Raja Hasan of Selangor to collect taxes and revenue in its territory. This power, however, was soon misused, causing conflict between the two sultanates.[68][69]
British protectorate
[edit]
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When the EIC established a British presence in Penang, the British already had a trading post in Singapore, avoiding involvement in the affairs of the nearby Malay sultanates.[72] In 1822, the British authority in India sent British diplomat John Crawfurd to Siam to negotiate trade concessions and gather information with a view to restoring the Sultan of Kedah to the throne. The mission failed.[73] In 1823, the Sultanates of Perak and Selangor signed a joint agreement to block the Dutch tin monopoly in their territories.[63] EIC policy shifted with the First Anglo-Burmese War in 1824 with Siam becoming an important ally.[65]
Through its governor, Robert Fullerton, Penang tried to convince the main EIC authority in India to continue helping the Sultan of Kedah to regain his throne.[74] Throughout 1824, Siam aimed to expand its control towards Perak and Selangor.[75] The dispute between the British and Dutch formally ceased when Dutch Malacca in the Malay Peninsula was exchanged with British Bencoolen in Sumatra, both parties agreeing to limit their sphere of influence through the signing of the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty.[76] In July 1825, an initial negotiation was held between Siam, represented by their tributary state the Kingdom of Ligor, and the EIC.[77] The King of Ligor promised that Siam would not send its armada to Perak and Selangor, resolving the issue of its attacks. The British renounced any aspiration of conquering Perak or interfering in its administration, promising to prevent Raja Hasan of Selangor from making trouble in Perak, and to try to reconcile the differences between Selangor and Ligor.[77] A month later, in August 1825, Sultan of Selangor Ibrahim Shah signed a friendship and peace treaty with the EIC, represented by John Anderson, ending the long feud between the governments of Selangor and Perak.[78] Under the treaty, Selangor gave assurances to the British that it would not interfere in the affairs of Perak; the border between Perak and Selangor was finalised; and Raja Hasan of Selangor was to be immediately exiled from Perak, paving the way for peace between the two Malay states and the resolution of the power struggle between the British and Siam.[78]
In 1826, the Kingdom of Ligor broke its promise and attempted to conquer Perak. A small British expeditionary force thwarted the attack. The Sultan of Perak then ceded to the British Dindings and Pangkor (the two now constitute Manjung District) so that the British could suppress pirate activity along the Perak coast where it became part of the Straits Settlements.[55] The same year, the British and Siam concluded the Burney Treaty, signed by British Captain Henry Burney and the Siamese government, the British agreed not to intercede in the affairs of Kedah despite their friendly relations with Kedah's ruler, and the Siamese agreed not to attack Perak or Selangor.[79][80]
The discovery of tin in Larut and rapid growth of the tin ore trade in the 19th century saw an increasing influx of Chinese labour. Later, rivalry developed between two Chinese secret societies. This, coupled with internal political strife between two factions of Perak's local Malay rulers, escalated into the Larut Wars in 1861.[81][82] After 21 years of wars, neighbouring Kedah freed itself from full Siamese rule in 1843, although it remained a Siamese tributary state until 1909.[55][64] By 1867, the link between the Straits Settlements on the Malay coast and the British authority in India was broken, with separate administration and the transfer of the respective territories to the Colonial Office.[72] The Anglo-Dutch Treaties of 1870–1871 enabled the Dutch to consolidate control over Aceh in Sumatra. This later escalated into the Aceh War.[83][84]
Internal conflicts ensued in Perak. In 1873, the ruler of one of Perak's two local Malay factions, Raja Abdullah Muhammad Shah II, wrote to the Governor of the Straits Settlements, Andrew Clarke, requesting British assistance.[85] This resulted in the Treaty of Pangkor, signed on Pangkor Island on 20 January 1874, under which the British recognised Abdullah as the legitimate Sultan of Perak.[86] In return, the treaty provided for direct British intervention through the appointment of a Resident who would advise the sultan on all matters except religion and customs, and oversee revenue collection and general administration, including maintenance of peace and order.[87] Britain's first priority in the region was preventing the internecine warfare among the Chinese at Larut which had been disrupting trade, and in bringing about an end to the piracy plaguing the region.[88]
The treaty marked the introduction of a British residential system, with Perak going on to become part of the Federated Malay States (FMS) in 1895. It was also a shift from the previous British policy of non-intervention in Perak's affairs.[55][85][86][70] James W. W. Birch was appointed as Perak's first British Resident, and Captain Speedy, already stationed at Larut with a number of Sepoys, was appointed Assistant Resident.[88] However, Birch's inability to understand and communicate well with the locals, ignorance of Malay customs, and disparagement of the efforts of the sultan and his dignitaries to implement British tax control and collection systems caused resentment. This was also not helped by a lack of a coherent British policy for the area, and poor understanding from the Sultanate as to the implications of a British Resident.[88] As a result, local nationalist Maharaja Lela and the new monarch, Sultan Abdullah Muhammad Shah II, opposed him, and the following year, in 1875, Birch was assassinated through a conspiracy of local Malay dignitaries Seputum, Pandak Indut, Che Gondah, and Ngah Ahmad.[30][91] The assassination angered the British authority, and following anti-British uprisings in several areas, a major military campaign was fought by the British in Perak in 1875–1876. The perpetrators were arrested and executed and the sultan and his chiefs, also suspected of involvement in the plot, were banished to the British Seychelles in the Indian Ocean in 1876.[92][93] The swiftness of the campaign would also act as a wake-up call to the chiefs that, unlike their other rivals, the British thoroughly intended to make their mark on the country, and had the power to enforce it.[94]
During his exile, the Sultan had the use of a government-owned residence at Union Vale in Victoria, Mahé. The other exiled chiefs were given allowances but remained under strict surveillance. The sultan and his chiefs were temporarily relocated to Félicité Island for five years, before being allowed to return to Victoria in 1882 when the turmoil in Perak had subsided. The sultan led a quiet life in the Seychellois community, and had communications access to Government House.[95] After many years, the Sultan was pardoned following petitioning by the Seychellois and correspondence between W. H. Hawley of Government House, Mauritius, and Secretary of State for the Colonies, Henry Holland. He was allowed to return to the Malay Peninsula, and spent most of his later life in Singapore and Penang before returning to Kuala Kangsar in Perak in 1922.[95][96]
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Being the only candidate to the Sultanate who could be confidently ascertained to be innocent of the plot, Abdullah's brother Yusuf was dully appointed Sultan, albeit one that would be considered far more of a British puppet than before. Despite this, the Malay population seemed largely to welcome the British as a source of stability compared to the often feuding chiefs.[94] Initially, the now vacant role of British Resident was taken over by James Guthrie Davidson, a previous resident of Selangor. However, the low pay and insecure position resulted in him disengaging from the role and leaving after only one year in office. Needing someone both local and skilled enough to handle the complicated circumstances of Perak, the Governor would subsequently appoint the more experienced Hugh Low, who had spent much of the past twenty-eight years in nearby Labuan, and who was considered a safe pair of hands by both London and the Governor.[97]
British Resident in Perak Hugh Low proved an effective administrator, preferring to adopt a generous approach that avoided confrontation with local leaders. As a result, he was able to secure the co-operation of many rajas and village penghulu with his policy rather than resorting to force, despite giving transport infrastructure little attention during his term.[30][98][99] In 1882, Frank Swettenham succeeded Low for a second term as the Resident of Perak. During his mandate, Perak's rail and road infrastructure was put in place. Increasing numbers of labourers were brought from India, primarily to work as railway and municipal coolies.[51][99]
The British introduced several changes to the local political structure, exerting influence on the appointment of the sultan and restricting the power of his chiefs to Malay local matters. The sultan and his chiefs were no longer entitled to collect taxes but received a monthly allowance from the state treasury in compensation.[100] British intervention marked the beginning of Perak's transition from a primarily Malay society to a multi-ethnic one. The new style of government worked to promote a market-driven economy, maintain law and order, and combat slavery, seen by the British as an obstacle to economic development and incompatible with a capitalist economy.[100]
Under the Anglo-Siamese Treaty, signed in Bangkok in 1909, Siam ceded its northern Malay tributary states of Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, and Terengganu and nearby islands to Great Britain. Exceptions were the Patani region, which remained under Siamese rule, and Perak, which regained the previously lost inland territory that became the Hulu Perak District.[66][71] The treaty terms stipulated that the British, through their government of the FMS, would assume responsibility for all debts owed to Siam by the four ceded Malay states, and relinquish British extraterritorial rights in Siam.[101]
Second World War
[edit]
There had been a Japanese community in Perak since 1893, managing the bus service between the town of Ipoh and Batu Gajah, and running brothels in Kinta.[51] There were a number of other Japanese-run businesses in Ipoh, including dentists, photo studios, laundries, tailors, barbers, and hotels. Activity increased as a result of the close relationship created by the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.[51]
Early in July 1941, a Ceylonese Malay policeman serving under the British administration in Perak raised an alert after a Japanese business owner living in the same building told him that Japanese troops were on their way, approaching not around Singapore from the sea, as expected by the British, but from Kota Bharu in Kelantan, with bicycle infantry and rubber boats.[51] The policeman informed the British Chief Police Officer in Ipoh, but his claim was laughed off.[51] By 26 December 1941, the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) had arrived in Ipoh, the capital, moving southwards from Thailand. The following day they went on to Taiping, leaving destruction and heavy casualties in their wake.[102] The British forces, retreating from the north of the Malay Peninsula under Lieutenant-General Lewis Heath, had moved a further 80–100 miles (130–160 km) to the Perak River (Sungai Perak), damaging the route behind them to slow the Japanese advance.[102] With the approval of Lieutenant-General Arthur Percival, the British mounted a defensive stand near the river mouth and in Kampar, leaving the towns of Ipoh, Kuala Kangsar and Taiping unguarded.[102]
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Most civil administrations were closed down, since the European administrators and civilians evacuated south.[102] By mid-December, the Japanese had reached Kroh in the interior of Perak, moving in from Kota Bharu in Kelantan. The Japanese arrived both from the east and by boat along the western coast.[102] Within 16 days of their first landings, they had captured the entire northern part of the Malay Peninsula. The British were left trying to blockade the main road heading south from Ipoh. While the defending troops briefly slowed the Japanese at the Battle of Kampar and at the mouth of the Perak River, the Japanese advance along the trunk road, followed up with bombing and water-borne incursions, forced the British to retreat further south.[102][103]
The Japanese occupied all of Malaya and Singapore. Tokugawa Yoshichika, of the Tokugawa clan whose ancestors were Shoguns who ruled Japan from the 16th to 19th centuries, proposed a plan for reform. Under its terms, Johor, Terengganu, Kelantan, Kedah-Penang, and Perlis would be restored and federated. Johor would control Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Malacca. An 800-square-mile (2,100 km2) area in southern Johor would be incorporated into Singapore for defence purposes.[104]
In the context of the military alliance between Japan and Thailand and their joint participation in the Burma campaign against the Allied forces, in 1943 the Empire of Japan gave Thailand back its former Malay tributary states of Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis, and Terengganu, which had been ceded to the British under the 1909 treaty. These territories were then administered as Thailand's Four Malay States (Thai: สี่รัฐมาลัย), with Japanese troops maintaining a presence.[105][106] Perak suffered under harsh military control, restricted movement, and tight surveillance throughout the Japanese occupation until 1945.[20][107] The press in occupied Malaya, including the English-language occupation-era newspaper The Perak Times, was entirely under the control of the Dōmei News Agency (Dōmei Tsushin), publishing Japanese-related war propaganda. The Dōmei News Agency also printed newspapers in Malay, Tamil, Chinese, and Japanese.[108]
The indigenous Orang Asli stayed in the interior during the occupation. Much of their community was befriended by Malayan Communist Party guerrillas, who protected them from outsiders in return for information on the Japanese and their food supplies.[109] Strong resistance came mainly from the ethnic Chinese community, while some Malays collaborated with the Japanese through the Kesatuan Melayu Muda (KMM) movement for Malayan independence. But Malay support waned with increasingly harsh Japanese treatment of civilians during the occupation.[110] Two Chinese guerrilla organisations operated within Perak in northern Malaya. One, the Overseas Chinese Anti-Japanese Army (OCAJA), was aligned with the Kuomintang. The other, the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA), was closely associated with the Chinese Communist Party. Although both opposed the Japanese, there were clashes between the two groups.[111]
Sybil Kathigasu, a Eurasian nurse and member of the Perak resistance, was tortured after the Japanese Kempeitai military police discovered a clandestine shortwave radio set in her home.[112][113] John Davis, an officer of the British commando Force 136, part of the Special Operations Executive (SOE), trained local guerrillas prior to the Japanese invasion at the 101 Special Training School in Singapore, where he sought Chinese recruits for their commando teams.