Northeast India
Northeast India
North Eastern Region (NER) | |
|---|---|
From top, left to right: Nuranang Falls, Bhutia Busty Monastery, Talatal Ghar, Imphal city, Ujjayanta Palace, Kohima War Cemetery, Mary Help of Christians Cathedral, Shillong, Yumthang Valley | |
 States in Northeast India | |
 | |
| Coordinates: 26°N 91°E / 26°N 91°E | |
| Country |  India |
| States | |
| Largest city | Guwahati |
| Major cities (2011 Census of India)[1] | |
| Area | |
• Total | 262,184 km2 (101,230 sq mi) |
| Population (2011) | |
• Total | 45,772,188 |
| 51,670,000 | |
| • Density | 173/km2 (450/sq mi) |
| Time zone | UTC+5:30 (Indian Standard Time) |
| Scheduled languages | |
| State/Regional official languages |
|
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Northeast India, officially the North Eastern Region (NER), is the easternmost region of India representing both a geographic and political administrative division of the country.[18] It comprises eight states: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura (commonly known as the "Seven Sisters"), and the state of Sikkim.[19] North-east India is one of the most linguistically diverse regions in the world.[20]
The region has India's international border of 5,182 kilometres (3,220 mi) with five neighbouring countries: China to the north, Myanmar to the east, Bangladesh to the southwest, Nepal to the west, and Bhutan to the northwest.[a][21] It comprises an area of 262,184 square kilometres (101,230 sq mi), almost 8 per cent of that of India and has a population of 45,772,188, almost 4 per cent that of India. The Siliguri Corridor connects the region to other parts of India.
Northeast India is very rich in mineral wealth;[22] India's first oil well was dug in Northeast India in 1865, in Digboi in Assam.[23] The region houses one of the notable ophiolites in the world.[24][25]
The region has been highly strategic and it witnessed one of the fiercest battles in the Second World War, the Battle of Imphal and Kohima (1944) where the Japanese Forces and the Allied Forces were engaged in a pitched battle that saw thousands of casualties on both sides.[26]
The states of North Eastern Region are officially recognised under the North Eastern Council (NEC),[27] constituted in 1971 as the acting agency for the development of the north eastern states. Sikkim became a member of the North Eastern Council in 2002.[28][29] India's Look-East connectivity projects connect Northeast India to East Asia and ASEAN.
History
[edit]
The earliest settlers may have been Austroasiatic speakers from Southeast Asia, followed by Tibeto-Burman speakers from China, and by 500 BCE Indo-Aryan speakers from the Gangetic Plains as well as Kra–Dai speakers from southern Yunnan and Shan State.[30] Due to the biodiversity and crop diversity of the region, archaeological researchers believe that early settlers of Northeast India had domesticated several important plants.[31] Historians believe that the 100 BCE writings of Chinese explorer Zhang Qian indicate an early trade route via Northeast India.[32] The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions a people called Sêsatai in the region,[33] who produced malabathron (cinnamon-like aromatic leaves, dried and used as a flavouring agent), so prized in the old world.[34] Ptolemy's Geographia (2nd century CE) calls the region Kirrhadia, apparently after the Kirata population.[35]
In the early historical period (most of the first millennium CE), Kamarupa straddled most of present-day Northeast India. Xuanzang, a travelling Chinese Buddhist monk, visited Kamarupa in the 7th century CE. He described the people as "short in stature and black-looking", whose speech differed a little from mid-India and who were of simple but violent disposition. He wrote that the people in Kamarupa knew of Sichuan, which lay to the kingdom's east beyond a treacherous mountain.[36]
The northeastern states were established during the British Raj of the 19th and early 20th centuries, when they became relatively isolated from traditional trading partners such as Bhutan and Myanmar.[37] Many of the peoples in present-day Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland converted to Christianity under the influence of British (Welsh) missionaries.[38]
Formation of North Eastern states
[edit]Since the Moamoria disturbances, the Ahom dynasty was on the decline. The British appeared on the scene in the guise of saviours.[39] In the early 19th century, both the Ahom and the Manipur kingdoms fell to a Burmese invasion.[39] The ensuing First Anglo-Burmese War resulted in the entire region coming under British control. In the colonial period (1826–1947), North East India was made a part of Bengal Province from 1839 to 1873, after which Colonial Assam became its own province,[40] but which included Sylhet.
After Indian Independence from British Rule in 1947, the Northeastern region of British India consisted of Assam and the princely states of Tripura Kingdom and Manipur Kingdom. Subsequently, Manipur and Tripura were made Union Territories of India in 1956 and in 1972 attained fully-fledged statehood. Later, Nagaland attained statehood in 1963, Meghalaya in 1972. Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram became full-fledged states on 20 February 1987, being carved out of the large territory of Assam.[41] Sikkim was integrated as the eighth North Eastern Council state in 2002.[28]
The city of Shillong served as the capital of the Assam province created during British Rule. It remained the capital of undivided Assam until the formation of the state of Meghalaya in 1972.[42] The capital of Assam was shifted to Dispur, a part of Guwahati, and Shillong was designated as the capital of Meghalaya.[citation needed]
| State | Historic name | Capital(s) | Statehood |
|---|---|---|---|
| Arunachal Pradesh | North-East Frontier Agency | Itanagar | 1987 (earlier a Union Territory of India, constituted in 1971)[43] |
| Assam | Kamarupa | Shillong (till 1969), Dispur | 1947 |
| Manipur | Kangleipak[44] | Imphal | 1971 (earlier a Union Territory of India, constituted in 1956)[43] |
| Meghalaya | Khasi hills, Jaintia hills and Garo hills | Shillong | 1971[43] |
| Tripura | Tipperah[45] | Agartala | 1971 (earlier a Union Territory of India, constituted in 1956)[43] |
| Mizoram | Lushai Hills | Aizawl | 1987 (earlier a Union Territory of India, constituted in 1971)[43][46] |
| Nagaland | Naga Hills District | Kohima | 1963 |
| Sikkim | Sukhim | Gangtok | 1975 |
World War II
[edit]Initially, the Japanese had invaded British territories in Southeast Asia, including Burma (now Myanmar), with the intention of creating a fortified perimeter around Japan. The British had neglected the defence of Burma, and by early 1942, the Japanese had captured Rangoon and pushed Allied forces back towards India through a gruelling retreat.[47]
In response to the Japanese advance, the British formed the South East Asia Command (SEAC) under Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten in November 1943. This command brought new energy to the war effort in the region and emphasised the importance of standing firm and fighting on despite logistical challenges, such as during the monsoon season.[48]
The Japanese launched an offensive in March 1944 aimed at capturing Imphal and Kohima, key locations in northeast India. Capturing these areas would have allowed the Japanese to disrupt Allied supply lines to China and launch air attacks against India.[49]
However, the Allied forces, under the leadership of Field Marshal William Slim, held firm. They adopted aggressive tactics, including the creation of defensive "boxes" and the use of jungle warfare techniques. Despite being surrounded, the defenders at Kohima held out against intense Japanese attacks until reinforcements arrived.[50]
The battles of Imphal and Kohima resulted in a decisive defeat for the Japanese. They suffered heavy casualties and were forced to retreat, marking a turning point in the Burma Campaign. The Allied victory paved the way for subsequent offensives to clear Japanese forces from Burma and ultimately led to the re-conquest of the region.[51]
Sino-Indian War (1962)
[edit]Arunachal Pradesh, a state in the Northeastern tip of India, is claimed by China as South Tibet.[52] Sino-Indian relations degraded, resulting in the Sino-Indian War of 1962. The cause of the escalation into war is still disputed by both Chinese and Indian sources. During the war in 1962, the PRC (China) captured much of the NEFA (North-East Frontier Agency) created by India in 1954. But on 21 November 1962, China declared a unilateral ceasefire, and withdrew its troops 20 kilometres (12 mi) behind the McMahon Line. China returned Indian prisoners of war in 1963.[53]
Seven Sister States
[edit]
The Seven Sister States is a popular term for the contiguous states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura prior to inclusion of the state of Sikkim into the North Eastern Region of India. The sobriquet 'Land of the Seven Sisters' was coined to coincide with the inauguration of the new states in January 1972 by Jyoti Prasad Saikia,[54] a journalist, author and bureaucrat from Assam, in the course of a radio talk show in Tripura. He later compiled a book on the interdependence and commonness of the Seven Sister States. It has been primarily because of this publication that the nickname has caught on.[55]
Geography
[edit]
The Northeast region can be physiographically categorised into the Eastern Himalaya, the Patkai and the Brahmaputra and the Barak valley plains. Northeast India (at the confluence of Indo-Malayan, Indo-Chinese, and Indian biogeographical realms) has a predominantly humid sub-tropical climate with hot, humid summers, severe monsoons, and mild winters. Along with the west coast of India, this region has some of the Indian subcontinent's last remaining rainforests, which support diverse flora and fauna and several crop species. Reserves of petroleum and natural gas in the region are estimated to constitute a fifth of India's total potential.[citation needed]
The region is covered by the mighty Brahmaputra-Barak river systems and their tributaries. Geographically, apart from the Brahmaputra, Barak and Imphal valleys and some flatlands in between the hills of Meghalaya and Tripura, the remaining two-thirds of the area is hilly terrain interspersed with valleys and plains; the altitude varies from almost sea-level to over 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) above MSL. The region's high rainfall, averaging around 10,000 millimetres (390 in) and above creates problems of the ecosystem, high seismic activity, and floods. The states of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim have a montane climate with cold, snowy winters and mild summers.[citation needed]
Ropeway, Gangtok
Aerial view of Shillong
Neer Mahal of Tripura
Nohkalikai Falls, Cherrapunji, Meghalaya
Topography
[edit]Highest peaks
[edit]
Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain peak in the world rising to an altitude of 8,586 m (28,169 ft), lies in between the state Sikkim and adjacent country Nepal.
Brahmaputra river basin
[edit]
Tributaries of the Brahmaputra River in Northeast India:
Climate
[edit]
Northeast India has a subtropical climate that is influenced by its relief and influences from the southwest and northeast monsoons.[56][57] The Himalayas to the north, the Meghalaya plateau to the south and the hills of Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur to the east influences the climate.[58] Since monsoon winds originating from the Bay of Bengal move northeast, these mountains force the moist winds upwards, causing them to cool adiabatically and condense into clouds, releasing heavy precipitation on these slopes.[58] It is the rainiest region in the country, with most places receiving an average annual precipitation over 2,000 mm (80 in), which is mostly concentrated in summer during the monsoon.[58] Cherrapunji, located on the Meghalaya plateau is one of the rainiest place in the world with an annual precipitation of 11,777 mm (463.7 in).[58] Temperatures are moderate in the Brahmaputra and Barak valley river plains which decreases with altitude in the hilly areas.[58] At the highest altitudes, there is permanent snow cover.[58] In general, the region has 3 seasons: Winter, Summer, and rainy season in which the rainy season coincides with the summer months much like the rest of India.[59] Winter is from early November until mid March while summer is from mid-April to mid-October.[58]
Under the Köppen climate classification, the region is divided into 3 broad types: A (tropical climates), C (warm temperate mesothermal climates), and D (snow microthermal climates).[60][61] The tropical climates are located in parts of Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, and the Cachar plains south of 25˚N and are classified as tropical monsoon (Am).[60] Much of Assam, Nagaland, northern parts of Meghalaya and Manipur and parts of Arunachal Pradesh fall within the warm temperature mesothermal climates (type C) where the mean temperatures in coldest months range from −3 to 18 °C (27 to 64 °F).[61][62] The entire Brahmaputra valley has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa/Cwa) with hot summers.[61][62] At altitudes between 500 and 1,500 m (1,600 and 4,900 ft) located in the eastern hills of Nagaland, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh, a (Cfb/CWb) climate prevails with warm summers.[61][62] Locations above 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in Meghalaya, parts of Nagaland, and northern Arunachal Pradesh have a (Cfc/Cwc) climate with short and cool summers.[62] Finally, the extreme northern parts of Arunachal Pradesh are classified as humid continental climates with mean winter temperatures below −3 °C (27 °F).[61][63]
Temperature
[edit]Temperatures vary by altitude with the warmest places being in the Brahmaputra and Barak River plains and the coldest at the highest altitudes.[64] It is also influenced by proximity to the sea with the valleys and western areas being close to the sea, which moderates temperatures.[64] Generally, temperatures in the hilly and mountainous areas are lower than the plains which lie at a lower altitude.[65] Summer temperatures tend to be more uniform than winter temperatures due to high cloud cover and humidity.[66]
In the Brahmaputra and Barak valley river plains, mean winter temperatures vary between 16 and 17 °C (61 and 63 °F) while mean summer temperatures are around 28 °C (82 °F).[64] The highest summer temperatures occur in the West Tripura plain with Agartala, the capital of Tripura having mean maximum summer temperatures ranging between 33 and 35 °C (91 and 95 °F) in April.[67] The highest temperatures in summer occur before the arrival of monsoons and thus eastern areas have the highest temperatures in June and July where the monsoon arrives later than western areas.[67] In the Cachar Plain, located south of the Brahmaputra plain, temperatures are higher than the Brahmaputra plain although the temperature range is smaller owing to higher cloud cover and the monsoons that moderate night temperatures year round.[65][67]
In the mountainous areas of Arunachal Pradesh, the Himalayan ranges in the northern border with India and China experience the lowest temperatures with heavy snow during winter and temperatures that drop below freezing.[65] Areas with altitudes exceeding 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) receive snowfall during winters and have cool summers.[65] Below 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) above sea level, winter temperatures reach up to 15 °C (59 °F) during the day with nights dropping to zero while summers are cool, with a mean maximum of 25 °C (77 °F) and a mean minimum of 15 °C (59 °F).[65] In the hilly areas of Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram, winters are cold while summers are cool.[66]
The plains in Manipur has colder winter minimums than what is warranted by its elevation owing to its geographic location which prevents winds that bring hot temperatures and humidity from coming into the Manipur plain,[68] alongside being surrounded by hills on all sides. This creates temperature inversions during winter nights when cold air descends from the hills into the valleys below.[68] For example, in Imphal, winter daytime temperatures hover around 21 °C (70 °F) but nighttime temperatures drop to 3 °C (37 °F).[68]
Rainfall
[edit]No part of Northeast India receives less than 1,000 mm (40 in) of rainfall a year.[59] Areas in the Brahmputra valley receive 2,000 mm (80 in) of rainfall a year while mountainous areas receive 2,000 to 3,000 mm (80 to 120 in) a year.[59] The southwest monsoon is responsible for bringing 90% of the annual rainfall to the region.