Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Biography
 | This guideline is a part of the English Wikipedia's Manual of Style. Editors should generally follow it, though it is best treated with common sense, and exceptions may apply. Substantive edits to this page should reflect consensus. |
| Manual of Style |
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This page sets out guidelines for achieving visual and textual consistency in biographical articles and in biographical information in other articles; such consistency allows Wikipedia to be used more easily. While this guideline focuses on biographies, its advice pertains, where applicable, to all articles that mention people.
Lead section
The lead section should summarise with due weight the life and works of the person. When writing about controversies in the lead section of a biography, relevant material should neither be suppressed nor allowed to overwhelm: always pay scrupulous attention to reliable sources, and make sure the lead correctly reflects the entirety of the article. Write clinically, and let the facts speak for themselves. These concerns are especially pressing for biographies of living persons.
Well-publicized recent events affecting a subject, whether controversial or not, should be kept in historical perspective. What is most recent is not necessarily what is most noteworthy: new information should be carefully balanced against old, with due weight accorded to each.
When a subject dies, the lead need not be radically reworked; Wikipedia is not a memorial site. Unless the cause of death is itself a reason for notability, a single sentence describing the death is usually sufficient, and often none is included in the lead at all, just a death date.
Opening paragraph
MoS guidelines for opening paragraphs and lead sentences should generally be followed. The opening paragraph of a biographical article should neutrally describe the person, provide context, establish notability, explain why the person is notable, and reflect the balance of reliable sources.
First sentence
The first sentence should usually state:
- Name(s) and title(s), if any . Handling of the subject's name is covered below in .
- Dates of birth and death, if found in secondary sources (do not use primary sources for birth dates of living persons or other private details about them).
- Context (location, nationality, etc.) for the activities that made the person notable.
- One, or possibly more, noteworthy positions, activities, or roles that the person is mainly known for, avoiding subjective or contentious terms.
- The main reason the person is notable (key accomplishment, record, etc.)
However, try not to overload the first sentence by describing everything notable about the subject; instead, spread relevant information over the lead paragraph.
The first sentence should start with the person's name, immediately followed by key biographical data in parentheses. The parenthetical list of facts is separated by semicolons. Typically, these include their birth name, if relevant, introduced by born, neé or né (), and their birth date, lifespan, or period of activity (). Other information may be included, such as pronunciation, but this is usually better incorporated elsewhere (). If a birth name and birth date are both introduced with born, they should be joined with a comma and the second born should be omitted (e.g., born Hussein Abdi Kahin, 23 March 1983, not born Hussein Abdi Kahin; born 23 March 1983 or born Hussein Abdi Kahin; 23 March 1983).
First sentence examples:
- Cleopatra VII Philopator[a] (69 – August 12, 30 BC) was queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, and its last active ruler.
- Francesco Petrarca[b] (July 20, 1304 – July 19, 1374), commonly anglicized as Petrarch,[c] was a scholar and poet of Renaissance Italy, and one of the earliest humanists.
- Cesar Estrada Chavez (March 31, 1927 – April 23, 1993) was an American labor leader and civil rights activist.
- François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand (26 October 1916 – 8 January 1996) was President of France from 1981 to 1995, the longest holder of that position in the history of France.
- Sir Lewis Carl Davidson Hamilton (born 7 January 1985) is a British racing driver ...
Birth date and place
The opening paragraph should usually have dates of birth and (when applicable) death. These dates (specific day–month–year) are important information about the subject, but if they are also mentioned in the body, the vital year range (in brackets after the person's full name) may be sufficient to provide context. For living persons, privacy should be considered .
Birth and death places, if known, should be mentioned in the body of the article, and can appear in the lead if relevant to notability, but not in the opening brackets alongside the birth and death dates.
Birth and death labels are included only when needed for clarity. When given, use full words, whether immediately preceding a date or not:
- William Alexander Spinks Jr. (1865–1933) was an American professional player of carom billiards in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. – no need for labels, and specific dates are in the article body
- Gro Harlem Brundtland (... born Gro Harlem, 20 April 1939) is a Norwegian politician ... – "born" label used to introduce birth name
For an approximate date or range of dates, use c. (abbreviation for circa); at first occurrence this should be done with the template {{circa}} a.k.a. {{c.}}, which explains the abbreviation: c. 1457. When the only date known for a historical subject is a date (or range) when they were alive, fl. for floruit (Latin for 'they flourished') is used; at first occurrence the {{floruit}} a.k.a. {{fl.}} template produces similar output: fl. 1432.
For full details on how to format simple and complex dates and ranges, .
Beyond the first paragraph of the lead section, birth and death details should only be included after a name if there is special contextual relevance. Abbreviations like b. and d. can be used, if needed, when space is limited (e.g., in a table) and when used repetitively (e.g., in a list of people). Birthdate information can be included in lists, directly to the right of the name, in parentheses, using the following format:
- John Smith (1900–1990), doctor, lawyer and politician
- Sally Wong (born 1984), ice skater
Context
The opening paragraph should usually provide context for what made the person notable. In most modern-day cases, this will be the country, region, or territory where the person is currently a national or permanent resident; or, if the person is notable mainly for past events, where the person was such when they became notable. [d][e]
Ethnicity, religion, or sexuality should generally not be in the lead unless relevant to the subject's notability. Similarly, neither previous nationalities nor the country of birth should be mentioned in the opening paragraph unless relevant to the subject's notability.
Nationality examples
The simplest example is someone who continued to reside in their country of origin:
- Daniel Boone (November 2, 1734 [O.S. October 22] – September 26, 1820) was an American pioneer and frontiersman
The second example is someone who emigrated as a child and continued to identify as a citizen of their adopted country:
- Isaac Asimov (c. January 2, 1920 – April 6, 1992) was an American writer
In cases of public or relevant dual citizenship, or a career that spans a subject's emigration, the use of the word and reduces ambiguity.
- Arnold Schwarzenegger (born July 30, 1947) is an Austrian and American actor, film producer, businessman, retired professional bodybuilder and politician
- Peter Lorre (June 26, 1904 – March 23, 1964) was a Hungarian and American actor
Native American and Indigenous Canadian status is based on citizenship, not ethnicity. Indigenous persons' citizenship can be listed parenthetically or as a clause after their names.
- Wilma Pearl Mankiller (November 18, 1945 – April 6, 2010) was a Native American activist, social worker, community developer and the first woman elected to serve as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation.
Finally, in controversial or unclear cases, nationality is sometimes omitted.
- Nicolaus Copernicus (19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance polymath, active as a mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic canon.
- Elon Reeve Musk (born June 28, 1971) is a businessman and entrepreneur.
- Anya-Josephine Marie Taylor-Joy (born 16 April 1996) is an actress.
Positions and roles
The lead sentence should describe the person as they are commonly described by reliable sources.
The noteworthy position(s) or role(s) the person held should usually be stated in the opening paragraph. However, avoid overloading the lead paragraph with various and sundry roles; instead, emphasize what made the person notable. Incidental and non-noteworthy roles (i.e. activities that are not integral to the person's notability) should usually not be mentioned in the lead paragraph.[f]
Offices, titles, and positions should accompany a name only if contextually relevant, and if common nouns, they should not be capitalized.
Wherever possible, avoid defining a notable person, particularly in the title or first sentence, in terms of their relationships. Generally speaking, notability is not inherited; e.g. a person being the spouse or child of another notable person does not make that person notable.
Criminal acts
Labels such as "criminal", "convicted felon", "fraudster", and "convicted sex offender" are imprecise and could be construed as name-calling or a moral judgement. It is better to describe the specific crime itself. The description and its placement should not give undue weight to the crime.[g]
When the crime is central to a person's notability, it can be introduced immediately after establishing who they are or were:
- Mary Katherine Fualaau (previously Letourneau, née Schmitz; January 30, 1962 – July 6, 2020) was an American teacher who pleaded guilty in 1997 to two counts of felony second-degree rape of a child and subsequently married her victim, a former student.
- John Wilkes Booth (May 10, 1838 – April 26, 1865) was an American stage actor who assassinated United States president Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., on April 14, 1865.
When the person is primarily notable for a reason other than the crime, principles of due weight will usually suggest placing the criminal description later in the first paragraph or in a subsequent paragraph (e.g. Martha Stewart, Rolf Harris,[h] Roman Polanski[i]). If the crime is not a significant part of the person's notability (e.g. Tim Allen, convicted of a felony 16 years before his rise to fame), it may be undue to mention in the lead at all.
Names
Most of the examples throughout this section illustrate usage in the title sentence, but are generally applicable to personal names in any encyclopedic text unless the advice provided is explicitly about the lead section at the subject's own biographical article.
Most recent personal names have but one correct spelling for a particular individual, although presentation (use of initials, middle names, nicknames, etc.) can vary and still be correct. In these cases, it is best to use a recognizable form. The most complete name should appear at the beginning of the article to provide maximum information. Inclusion of middle names or initials when they are widely known can be a useful form of disambiguation if there is more than one person known by that name. This can be particularly useful in disambiguating family members with very similar names (e.g., George W. Bush, George P. Bush, George H. W. Bush). However, if the person is conventionally known by only their first and last names and disambiguation is not required, any middle names should be omitted. When a non-English personal name is written in a romanised form, it is encouraged to include the authentic spelling of the name at least once. For a person who has a biographic article, a link to that may suffice.
Names from history are less certain as to spelling, and the further back one goes the less particular societies were about exactness, so variations are more likely. Reliable sources on history should be consulted when a decision about naming must be made or a controversy arises. A readily accessible and authoritative source for the accepted name of a person who has written books, or who has been written about, is the US Library of Congress Authorities database, which provides the accepted name and variant names used by the British Library, the National Library of Canada, and other English-language libraries. Redirect pages can ensure that all variants lead to the desired article.
Unusual exceptions
Exceptions to the guidance in the Names section are only made when:
- The person has clearly declared and consistently used a preferred exceptional style for their own name; and
- An overwhelming majority of reliable sources use that style.
In such a case, treat it as a self-published name change.
Examples:
- danah boyd – lowercase – but not e e cummings
- k.d. lang – lowercase, with unspaced initials
- Megan Thee Stallion – variant spelling of The, capitalized mid-name – but not Cedric The Entertainer
- CC Sabathia, and CCH Pounder – unspaced initials with no dots
- Dedee Pfeiffer – spelled-out initials for Dorothy Diane
- Rose ffrench, 1st Baroness ffrench – word-initial ff used by that family
Such exceptions are determined by consensus and source research at a particular article, and do not generalize across an entire category of subjects (e.g. other academics, singer-songwriters, sportspeople, actors, nobility, or groups).
Redirects to such an article should exist from other forms of the name that readers might search for, especially the form that complies with the Manual of Style's defaults (for the above cases: Danah Boyd, K. D. Lang, Megan the Stallion, C. C. Sabathia, C. C. H. Pounder, D. D. Pfeiffer, Rose Ffrench and Rose Ffrench, 1st Baroness Ffrench).
For unusual name presentations, usually in the sphere of performer marketing, that straddle the line between an individual's name and a trademark (e.g. Deadmau5, versus Ke$ha for Kesha), .
Text formatting
English-language text formatting and capitalization norms apply to the names of individuals and groups, including bands, troupes, teams/squads, and families. Avoid unusual text formatting, such as over-capitalization and letter substitutions, including for nicknames, stage names and other trademarks (Kesha, not Ke$ha).
Common nicknames, aliases, and variants are usually given in boldface in the lead, especially if they redirect to the article, or are found on a disambiguation page or hatnote and link from those other names to the article. Boldface is not needed for obscure names, for a long list or for repeated names; embolden only the first instance. For example:
- Spiro Theodore Agnew (November 9, 1918 – September 17, 1996) was the 39th vice president... Agnew was born...
- Spiro Theodore Agnew (November 9, 1918 – September 17, 1996) was the 39th vice president... Agnew was born...
- Use Cedric the Entertainer not Cedric The Entertainer
- In running text, the team is the Miami Heat, not The Miami Heat, except at the beginning of a sentence.[j]
First mention
While the article title should generally be the name by which the subject is most commonly known, the subject's full name, if known, should usually be given in the lead sentence (including middle names, if known, or middle initials). Many cultures have a tradition of not using the full name of a person in everyday reference, but the article should start with the complete version in most cases. For example:
- From Fidel Castro: Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (August 13, 1926 – November 25, 2016) ...
But remember that editors need to balance the desire to maximize the information available to the reader with the need to maintain readability. For example, the case of Muammar Gaddafi.
- Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi (Arabic: معمر محمد أبو منيار القذافي; /ˈmoʊ.əmɑːr ɡəˈdɑːfi/; c. 1942 – 20 October 2011), also known as Colonel Gaddafi, was a Libyan politician, revolutionary, and political theorist.
The sentence seems to contain unnecessary clutter – a more readable form would be preferable. In addition, more relevant information should be included instead of translations, pronunciations, and alternative names or spellings, which can be introduced later in the lead. Consider moving some details into a footnote:
- Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi[pron 1] (c. 1942 – 20 October 2011) was a Libyan revolutionary, politician and political theorist who ruled Libya from 1969 until his assassination by rebel forces in 2011.
But remember, it's on a case-by-case basis and subject to consensus.
Alternative names
- Timothy Alan Dick (born June 13, 1953), known professionally as Tim Allen
- Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi (c. 1445 – May 17, 1510), better known as Sandro Botticelli
- Ariadna Thalía Sodi Miranda (born 26 August 1971), known mononymously as Thalía
- A sports journalist's one-off reference to a player as "the Atlanta panther" in purple prose does not constitute a nickname, and treating it as one is original research.
- "Tricky Dick" does not appear in the lead of Richard Nixon; this label by his political opponents is covered, with context, in the article body.
Examples:
 Genghis Khan (born Temüjin; c. 1162 – August 1227), also known as Chinggis Khan, was the founder and first khan of the Mongol Empire. |
 Genghis Khan or Chinggis Khan (Mongolian: Чингис хаан, romanized: Çingis hán; Chinese: 成吉思汗; pinyin: Chéngjísī Hán; Wade–Giles: Ch'eng2-chi2-szu1 Han4; c. 1162 – August 18, 1227), born Temüjin (Тэмүжин Temüjin; traditional Chinese: 鐵木真; simplified Chinese: 铁木真; pinyin: Tiěmùzhēn; Wade–Giles: T'ieh3-mu4-chen1), was the founder and first khan of the Mongol Empire. |
| Joseph John Aiuppa (December 1, 1907 – February 22, 1997), also known as "Joey O'Brien" and later as "Joey Doves", was a Chicago mobster. |
| Joseph John Aiuppa (December 1, 1907 – February 22, 1997), also known as "Joey O'Brien", "Joey O.", "O'Brien", "Joey Doves", "Joey the Doves", and "Mourning Doves", was a Chicago mobster. |
| *The various nicknames are mostly how other mobsters – not so much the reliable sources – referred to Joey Aiuppa, and only two of them were widely reported, the rest being minor variants. |
A leading "the" is not capitalized in a nickname, pseudonym, or other alias (except when the alias begins a sentence[j]):
- Use: Jack "the Assassin" Tatum; or: Jack Tatum, nicknamed "the Assassin"
- Avoid: Jack "The Assassin" Tatum; and: Jack Tatum, nicknamed "The Assassin"
Anachronistic names
A person named in an article of which they are not the subject should be referred to by the name they used at the time being described. For example, Pope John Paul I was known as Albino Luciani before he was elevated to the papacy, so material about the time before he became pope should use that name. In some cases, it is helpful to the reader to clarify, e.g., Albino Luciani (later to become Pope John Paul I). The principle of avoiding anachronistic naming is also usually employed in the subject's own biography (including that of John Paul I), especially when the article is no longer a short stub.
Changed names
In some cases, a subject may have changed their full name at some point after birth. In these cases, the birth name may be given in the lead as well, if relevant:[l]
- From Jack Benny: Jack Benny (born Benjamin Kubelsky; February 14, 1894 – December 26, 1974) ...
- From Bill de Blasio: Bill de Blasio (born Warren Wilhelm Jr., May 8, 1961) ...
If a person has changed their name but it is not known whether the known prior name was their name assigned at birth, introduce it in the opening sentence with "formerly":
- Bob Jones (formerly Bobo Janus; born April 1, 1998)
Specific guidelines apply to living transgender and non-binary people .
Multiple changed names
In other cases, a subject may have changed names multiple times.[m]
Multiple former names may be mentioned in the lead, boldfaced if they redirect to the article. However, it is not always appropriate to list every previous name of a subject, only the birth name and those that were in use during the period of notability:
- Bill de Blasio (born Warren Wilhelm Jr., May 8, 1961) is a politician .... He was briefly known as Warren de Blasio-Wilhelm ...
The names should be distributed throughout the lead to mark major transitions in the subject's life:
- Augustus (63 BC – 14 AD) was a Roman emperor .... He was born Gaius Octavius Thurinus into a wealthy family .... He assumed the name Octavian after his adoption ...
Surnames
If a subject changed their surname (last name) for whatever reason (e.g., marriage, adoption, personal preference), then their surname at birth should generally also be given in the lead. Editors may denote this with "born" followed by the subject's surname or full name; for name changes due to marriage, they may also use née (feminine) and né (masculine) followed by the surname, provided the term is linked at first occurrence. The templates {{nee}} and {{ne}} provide this linking and do not require typing the é character. It is usually not written in italics.
Some practical examples:
- From Angela Merkel: Angela Dorothea Merkel (née Kasner; born 17 July 1954) is a German politician ...
- From Hillary Clinton: Hillary Diane Rodham Clinton (née Rodham; born October 26, 1947) is an American politician and diplomat ...
- From Jack White: John Anthony White (né Gillis; born July 9, 1975) is an American musician, singer, songwriter ...
- From Barbara Flynn: Barbara Flynn (born Barbara Joy McMurray, 5 August 1948) is an English actress ...
Pseudonyms and stage names
For people who are best known by a pseudonym, the legal name should usually appear first in the article, followed closely by the pseudonym. Follow this practice even if the article itself is titled with a pseudonym:
- Louis Bert Lindley Jr. (June 29, 1919 – December 8, 1983), better known by the stage name Slim Pickens
Investigation in reliable sources may be needed to determine whether a subject known usually by a pseudonym has actually changed their legal name to match (e.g., Reginald Kenneth Dwight formally changed his name to Elton Hercules John early in his musical career). Where this is not the case, and where the subject uses a popular form of their name in everyday life, then care must be taken to avoid implying that a person who does not generally use all their forenames or who uses a familiar form has actually changed their name. Do not write, for example:
- John Edwards (born Johnny Reid Edwards, June 10, 1953).
Hypocorisms
It is not always necessary to spell out why the article title and lead paragraph give a different name. If a person has a common English-language hypocorism (diminutive or abbreviation) used in lieu of a given name,[n] it is not presented between quotation marks or parentheses within or after their name. Example:
- Use: William Henry Gates III
- Avoid: William Henry "Bill" Gates III
Nicknames
If a person is known by a nickname used in lieu of or in addition to a given name, and it is not a common hypocorism[n] of one of their names, or a professional alias, it is usually presented between double quotation marks following the last given name or initial. The quotation marks are not put in lead-section boldface. Example:
- From Bunny Berigan: Roland Bernard "Bunny" Berigan.
- From Ozzy Osbourne: John Michael "Ozzy" Osbourne.
- From Tina Fey: Elizabeth Stamatina "Tina" Fey.
Do not cram multiple hypocorisms and nicknames into the name in the lead sentence; complicated naming should be explained separately.
- Poor, confusing example: William Emery "Emory, Spunk" Sparrow (September 15, 1897 – February 2, 1965) was a Canadian professional ice hockey forward ...
- Clear rewrite: William Emery Sparrow (September 15, 1897 – February 2, 1965) was a Canadian professional ice hockey forward ... As a professional player, he spelled his name Emory, and was commonly known by the nickname Spunk Sparrow. (The article title is Emory Sparrow, already establishing that as the common, primary name.)
A nickname can eventually become a professional alias, even the most common name for a person. In this case, it is within quotation marks only if it first introduces the nickname in mid-name in the lead. Otherwise, it loses the quotation marks. If the nickname is dominant (in general or in a particular context) it can often be used in other articles without further elaboration. Example:
- From Magic Johnson: Earvin "Magic" Johnson Jr. (born August 14, 1959) is ... a basketball player. Magic Johnson left Michigan State after his sophomore season to enter the NBA draft.
If a nickname is used in place of the subject's entire name, it is usually given separately:
- Alphonse Gabriel Capone ... sometimes known by the nickname "Scarface".
- Dr. Ruth and Dr. Drew are trademarks; though they originated as informal nicknames, they do not require quotation marks.
- From Ruth Westheimer: Karola Ruth Westheimer (née Siegel; June 4, 1928 – July 12, 2024), better known as Dr. Ruth, was a ...
Nicknames should not be represented with additional name parts unless necessary for usage clarity.
- Use: Earl "the Pearl" Strickland; or: Earl Strickland, nicknamed "Earl the Pearl"
- Avoid: Earl Strickland, nicknamed "Earl the Pearl" Strickland
Initials
Use initials in a personal name[o] only if the name is commonly written that way.
An initial is capitalized and is followed by a full point (period) and a space (e.g. J. R. R. Tolkien).
In article text, a space after an initial (or an initial and a full point) and before another initial should be a non-breaking space: J. R. R. Tolkien (or use the {{nbsp}} template). This also works inside links ( [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]) and citation template parameters (|first=J. R. R.), though only with markup, not the template. An alternative is {{nowrap}} around the entire initials string, but this must not be used inside citation template parameters.
Initials in other languages are sometimes treated differently from usual English practice. For example, a name beginning with two letters representing a single sound is treated as a single two-character initial in some European languages (e.g., Lj. for Ljudevit), and hyphenated given names are sometimes abbreviated with the hyphen (J.-P. for Jean-Pierre). If reliable sources consistently use such a form for a particular person, use it on Wikipedia as well.
Avoid formerly common multi-letter abbreviations used in English as a shorthand in letter-writing, genealogies, etc. (examples: Geo. = George; Jno. = John; Jna. = Jonathan; Thos. = Thomas; Jas. = James, Chas. = Charles), except in quotations and as they survive in trademarks (Geo. Hall & Sons). E.g., refer to the author as George W. Proctor, though some of his books have Geo. W. Proctor on the cover (the alternative form should redirect to his article).
With initials, it is not necessary to spell out why the article title and lead paragraph give a different name. For example, H. P. Lovecraft has that title, H. P. Lovecraft appears in his infobox, and his lead sentence just gives Howard Phillips Lovecraft ... was an American writer ..., without "explaining" to the reader what H. P. stands for. Initials are not nicknames; do not put them in quotation marks or insert them in mid-name, as in John Thomas Smith better known as "J. T." Smith or John Thomas (J. T.) Smith.
Initials that encapsulate the entire name, and are thus composed solely of initial capital letters, are generally considered nicknames and should be avoided in article prose. Their usage should follow the style guide for acronyms. For instance, do not use J. F. K.: use Kennedy in prose but keep an undotted and unspaced JFK only when used within quotations.
Generational and regnal suffixes
Using Jr., Sr., or other such distinctions, including in the lead sentence of an article, is only for cases in which the name with the suffix is commonly used in reliable sources.
Do not put a comma before Jr., Sr. (or variations such as Jnr), or a Roman numeral name suffix, whether it is patronymic or regnal: use Otis D. Wright II, not Otis D. Wright, II. Append a period, or not (Jr. or Jr), according to the variety of English used by the article.
When the surname is shown first, the suffix follows the given name, as Kennedy, John F. Jr. or Wright, Otis D. II.[p] When the given name is omitted, omit the suffix – Kennedy, not Kennedy Jr. – except where the context requires disambiguation. If necessary, explain in longer form which party is meant, e.g. The younger Jackson was elected mayor of Wolverham in 1998.
The French fils ('son') and père ('father') can be used for subjects for whom this usage is typical in English-language works: Alexandre Dumas fils. These terms are not capitalized.
Families
Royal surnames
Only incorporate surnames in the opening line of royal biographies if they are known and if they are in normal use. But do not automatically presume that the name of a royal house is the personal surname of its members. In many cases it is not. For visual clarity, articles on monarchs should generally begin with the form "{name} {ordinal if appropriate} (full name – but without surname; birth and death dates, if applicable)", and articles on other royals should generally begin with the form "{royal title} {name} {ordinal if appropriate} (full name – including surname (if in normal use); birth and death dates, if applicable)"; in both cases with the full name and dates information unformatted, but the title, name and ordinal that are outside the parenthesis, in bold. Using this format displays the most important information clearly without an unattractive excess of formatting. Other information on royal titles should be listed where appropriate in chronological order.
Subsequent use
After the initial mention, a person should generally be referred to by surname only – without an honorific prefix such as "Mr.", "Mrs.", or "Ms.", and without academic or professional prefixes like "Dr.", "Prof.", "Rev.", etc. – or may be referred to by a personal pronoun. For example:
- Fred Smith was a Cubist painter in the early 20th century. He moved to Genoa, where he met singer Gianna Doe. Smith and Doe later married.
However, where a person does not have a surname but a patronymic or matronymic (like many Icelanders, some Mongols, and those historical persons who are known by names-and-patronymics instead of surnames), then the proper form of reference is usually the given name. For example:
- Iceland's 24th prime minister was Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir. Jóhanna was elected to the Althing in 1978.
Generally speaking, subjects should not otherwise be referred to by their given name; exceptions include royalty, e.g. Prince William or William. Any subject whose surname has changed should be referred to by their most commonly used name. If their most commonly used name includes their earlier surname, and you're discussing a period of their life before the surname change, refer to them by their prior surname. For example, when discussing the early lives of Hillary and Bill Clinton, use "Rodham met Clinton while they were students at Yale", referring to Hillary using her then-current surname.
A member of the nobility may be referred to by title if that form of address would have been the customary way to refer to them; for example Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, may become the Earl of Leicester, the Earl, or just Leicester (if the context is clear enough) in subsequent mentions. For modern-day nobility it is better to use name and title; at some time in the future the Prince of Wales will be a different person than William, Prince of Wales, and a great many articles risk becoming out of date. Be careful not to give someone a title too soon; for example, one should use Robert Dudley or Dudley when describing events before his elevation to the peerage in 1564.
- If a majority of reliable secondary sources refer to a person by a pseudonym, subsequent mentions should use their pseudonym.
- If the pseudonym includes a recognizable surname (e.g. Marilyn Manson, Martin Sheen), use their pseudonymous surname; otherwise use the whole pseudonym (e.g. Snoop Dogg, the Edge).
- If a person uses their mononym exclusively, then use it (e.g. Aaliyah, Selena).
- For people well known by one-word names, nicknames, or pseudonyms, but who often also use their legal names professionally (e.g. André Benjamin ("André 3000"), Drew Pinsky ("Dr. Drew")), use the legal surname.
- If a person is known by multiple professional names, subsequent mentions should use the name consistent with the article title (e.g. Sean Combs, Teemu Keisteri).
Culture-specific usages
- Burmese names are personal names that consist of one or more words, with no patronymic or surname. Always use the full form of the person's name.
- Ethiopian and Eritrean people are almost always referred to by their given name as they do not have a family name. There are some rare exceptions to this: where the person – usually a member of the later generations of the Eritrean diaspora or Ethiopian diaspora – has adopted the patronymic as a formal family name. Consider using the template
{{Patronymic name}}. - Icelandic people with patronymics (which is most of them) may be referred to by their given name or their given name and patronymic, but not by their patronymic alone. Consider using
{{Icelandic name}}. - Japanese historical (and some modern) figures may be conventionally known by either their family (clan) name and their given name or their given name only but not their family name only.
- In Southeast and South Asia, many people use only a personal name, which may be followed by a patronymic; in such cases, they should be referred to by their personal name.
- Mongolian people are referred to by their given name, with their patronymic placed in front of it, usually in the genitive case. There are no family names. Consider placing
{{Family name hatnote}}. - Spanish naming customs generally call for one or more given names followed by a patronymic then a matronymic (and the latter two may be separated by y or another article). In Portuguese names, given names are followed by a matronymic then a patronymic. In both cases, the common name of such a person most often lacks the matronymic. Consider using
{{Family name hatnote}}or{{Portuguese name}}. - Thai people are almost always known and addressed by their first name (i.e. given name). Hence, on second and subsequent mentions, they should be referred to by first name alone.
- In Vietnamese names, given names also take priority over family names. The given name, not the surname, should be used to refer to the person. The given name is nevertheless placed after the family name, following the East Asian naming scheme, even when written about in English.
People with the same surname
To distinguish between people with the same surname in the same article or page, use given names or complete names to refer to each of the people upon first mention. For subsequent uses, refer to them by their given names for clarity and brevity. When referring to the person who is the subject of the article, use just the surname unless the reference is part of a list of family members or if use of the surname alone will be confusing. This applies to minors as well as adults.[q] While citations and bibliographies should use full names even in subsequent mentions (if full names are the style for citations and bibliographies in the article), the body of an article should not unless confusion could result.
For example, in the text of an article on Ronald Reagan:
- Correct: Ronald and Nancy Reagan arrived separately, Ronald by helicopter and Nancy by car.
- Correct: The Reagans arrived separately, Ronald by helicopter and Nancy by car.
- Redundant: Ronald and Nancy Reagan arrived separately; Ronald Reagan by helicopter and Nancy Reagan by car.
In the text of an article about the Brothers Grimm:
- Correct: Jacob Grimm was 14 months older than his brother Wilhelm.
- Redundant: Jacob Grimm was 14 months older than his brother Wilhelm Grimm.
Individuals distinguished with a generational suffix can be written about in Forename Suffix style to disambiguate from other family members in the same article: William Sr., John Jnr, James III. No comma is used in these short constructions.
If an article about a person mentions another person with the same surname who is not related by family or marriage, subsequent mentions of the other person should use the full name:
- Correct: Andrea Dworkin was the subject of biographical writing by Ronald Dworkin.
In an article that is not about either unrelated person with the same surname, continue to refer to them both by their full names. Source citations, bibliographies, and in-text attributions usually include the names of authors and others. Consider them when checking for people with the same surname.
Eponyms
Eponyms – derived usage of personal (or other) names, as in Parkinson's disease – capitalize the name portion, aside from conventionalized exceptions.
Titles of people
Overview: Titles should be capitalized when attached to an individual's name, or where the position/office is a globally unique title that is the subject itself, and the term is the actual title or conventional translation thereof (not a description or rewording). Titles should not be capitalized when being used generically. Aside from mentioning them in the lead sentence of a biographical subject's own article, only use titles where they are necessary for clarity or identification in the context.
Specifics may vary, as described in more detail below. Non-English titles are most often translated into English, but this is left to editorial discretion and may be conventionalized across a category, based primarily on usage in English-language reliable sources (e.g., recipients of German knighthoods like Robert Ritter von Greim are not translated into "Sir Robert Greim", and are usually rendered in Robert von Greim form in running text; the Tibetan title Dalai Lama is far more familiar to English speakers than any literal or figurative translation).
Hyphenation and compounds: When hyphenated and capitalized, e.g. Vice-president (as it is usually spelled in contexts other than US politics), the element after the hyphen is not capitalized. When an unhyphenated compound title is capitalized (unless this is simply because it begins a sentence),[j] each word begins with a capital letter: In 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned. This does not apply to unimportant words, such as the of in White House Chief of Staff John Doe. Do not use a hyphen, dash, or slash to fuse two titles someone holds; give them separately: XYZCo Regional Director and Staff Counsel Janet Goldstein.
Positions, offices, and occupational titles
Offices, titles, and positions such as president, king, emperor, grand duke, lord mayor, pope, bishop, abbot, prime minister, leader of the opposition, chief financial officer, and executive director are common nouns and therefore should be in lower case when used generically: Mitterrand was the French president or There were many presidents at the meeting. They are capitalized only in the following cases:
- When followed by a person's name to form a title, i.e., when they can be considered to have become part of the name: President Nixon, not president Nixon; Pope John XXIII, not pope John XXIII.
- When used to refer to a specific person as a substitute for their name during their time in office, e.g., the King, not the king (referring to Charles III); the President, not the president (referring to Donald Trump).
- When referring to an office or title itself (as King of France), and it is not plural (not Kings of France), is not preceded by a modifier—including a definite or indefinite article (not the King of France, former King of France), and is not a reworded description (not Head of Government of France).
| Unmodified, denoting a title | Modified or reworded, denoting a description |
|---|---|
| Richard Nixon was President of the United States. |
|
| Theresa May became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 2016. |
|
| Louis XVI became King of France and Navarre in 1774, later styled King of the French (1791–1792). |
|
Even when used with a name, capitalization is not required for commercial and informal titles: OtagoSoft vice-president Chris Henare; team co-captain Chan.
The formality (officialness), specificity, or unusualness of a title is not a reason to capitalize it.
Note that for "president of the United States" or "prime minister of the United Kingdom", the name of the country remains capitalized even when the title is not, as it is always a proper noun. When writing "minister of foreign affairs" or "minister of national defence", the portfolio should be lower-cased as it is not a proper noun on its own (i.e., write minister of foreign affairs or, as a proper noun, Minister of Foreign Affairs; do not write minister of Foreign Affairs).
Academic or professional titles and degrees
Academic or professional titles (such as "Dr." or "Professor"), including honorary ones, should be used only with subjects of a biography that are widely known by a pseudonym or stage name containing the title (whether earned or not), and included in the pseudonym as described above (e.g. Mehmet Cengiz Oz, better known as Dr. Oz ...). However, verifiable facts about how a person attained their title should be included in the article.
Post-nominal letters for academic degrees following someone's name (such as Steve Jones, PhD; Margaret Doe, JD) may occasionally be used within an article where that person is not the subject, to clarify their qualifications concerning some part of the article, although this is usually better described in wording. Avoid this practice otherwise.
Post-nominal letters
When the subject of an article has received honours or appointments issued either by the subject's state of citizenship or residence, or by a widely recognized organization that reliable sources regularly associate with the subject, post-nominal letters may be included in any part of the article other than the lead sentence.[8]
The lead sentence should be concise: Academic (including honorary) degrees and professional qualifications may be mentioned in the article, along with the above, but should be omitted from the lead.
Post-nominals for honours awarded by the United Kingdom (e.g. KCB, CBE) may be used as soon as they are gazetted; investiture is not necessary.
Post-nominals should only be mentioned at relevant places in a biography subject's own article (excepting the lead sentence), in an infobox parameter for post-nominals, when the post-nominals themselves are under discussion in the material, and in other special circumstances such as a list of recipients of an award or other honour. For example, "Brian Lara TC OCC AM" should not appear in an article like Warwickshire County Cricket Club.
Formatting post-nominals
Where post-nominal letters are used, commas should be used to separate them from the name and any following text, and to divide each set of letters; alternatively, no commas should be used at all. If a peerage or baronetcy is held, then commas should always be used for consistency's sake, as the noble title is already separated from the name by a comma.
Where this manual provides options, consistency should be maintained within an article unless there is a good reason to do otherwise. The Arbitration Committee has ruled that editors should not change an article from one guideline-defined style to another without a substantial reason unrelated to mere choice of style, and that revert-warring over optional styles is unacceptable.[r] If the discussion cannot determine which style to use in an article, defer to the style used in the first post-stub version of the article to include a post-nominal.
Editors should remember that the meaning of the most obvious (to them) post-nominal initials will not be obvious to some readers. When post-nominal initials are used, the meaning should be readily available to the reader. This may be via a wikilink to an article, or with the {{abbr}} template (or its underlying <abbr>...</abbr> markup) which provides a mouse-over tooltip expanding the abbreviation.
This is most easily done using the {{post-nominals}} template:
- With commas:
Joe Bloggs, {{post-nominals|size=100%|sep=,|country=GBR|VC|OBE}}
gives: Joe Bloggs, VC, OBE - Without commas:
Joe Bloggs {{post-nominals|country=GBR|VC|OBE}}
gives: Joe Bloggs VC OBE
This template needs the |size=100% parameter when used in an infobox, or its output will be too small. Otherwise the |size=100% parameter is optional with or without commas.
At least, use a piped link to an article with the appropriate title, e.g.:
Joe Bloggs [[Victoria Cross|VC]] [[Officer of the Order of the British Empire|OBE]]
gives: Joe Bloggs VC OBE
This ensures that readers who hover over the initials see the target article's URL as a hint and in the status bar at the bottom of the window. This manual formatting is only needed for cases where {{post-nominals}} does not handle the abbreviation in question. If there is nothing to link to, and a redlink is unlikely to result in eventual creation of an article, use the {{abbr}} template to explain the acronym. Because there is an accessibility issue with relying exclusively on such tooltip cues (touch-sensitive devices and assistive technologies generally do not utilize mouse-cursor hovering), a link is preferred when available.